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50:3
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Cyclopedia
of
Automobile Engineering
A General Reference JVork $n
THE CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION, AND CARE OF GASOLINE, STEAM, AND
ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES, INSTRUCTION IN DRIVING, COMMERCIAL
VEHICLES, MOTORCYCLES, MOTOR BOATS, AERIAL VEHICLES,
SELF-PROPELLED RAILWAY CARS, ETC.
Prepared by a Staff of
AUTOMOBILE EXPERTS, CONSULTING ENGINEERS, AND DESIGNERS OF THE
HIGHEST PROFESSIONAL STANDING
Illustrated with over Two Thousand Engravings
FOUR VOLUMES
CHICAGO
AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY
1910
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GOPYRIOHT, 1909, 1910
BY
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE
OOPYRIOHT. 1909, 1910
BY
AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY
Entered at Stationen' HalU London
AU Riffhts Reserved
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JUM 4 1910
,2^ Authors and Collaborators
CHARLES B. HAYWARD
Member, Society of Automobile Engineers
Formerly Secretary of the Society of Automobile Engineere
Formerly Ens^neerlng Editor, The AutomotnU
C. T. ZIEGLER
Automobile Engineer
Manager, Renault Frdres Selling Branch. Chicago
HUGO DIEMER, M. E.
Professor of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State College
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
HERBERT LADD TOWLE, B. A.
Consulting Engineer on Automobile and Gas Engine Work
Member. Society of Automobile Engineers
Formerly Associate Editor, The Automobile
S. E. REEDER
Cashier, Babcock Electric Carriage Co.
DARWIN S. HATCH, B. S.
Assistant Editor. Textbook DeiMurtment. American School of Correspondence
MORRIS A. HALL, B. S.
Associate Editor, The Automcbile
Associate Member. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
^*
J. G. BAYERLINE
Vice-President and General Manager. Warren Motor-Car Company
^*
GLENN M. HOBBS, Ph. D.
Secretary. American School of Correspondence
LIONEL S. MARKS, S. B., M. M. E.
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering. Harvard University
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
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Authors and Collaborators— Continued
LAWRENCE K. SAGER, S. B., M. P. L.
Patent Attorney and Electrical Expert
Formerly Assistant Examiner. U. S. Patent Of&ce
ALFRED H. BARTSCH
Bftanaffer, N. S. U. Motor Co.
ROBERT ANDREWS MILLIKAN, Ph. D.
Associate Professor of Physics. University of Chicago
GEORGE L. LLOYD ^
Sales Blanasrer. Velie Motor Vehicle Go.
PERCY H. THOMAS, S. B. ^
Of Thomas & Neall. Electrical Enffineers. New York City
Formerly Chief Electrician. Cooper-Hewitt Electric Co.
WALTER G. MORSE ^
Treasorer. Atlas Motor-Car Company
ERNEST L. WALLACE, B. S.
Instructor in Electrical Enffineerins. American School of Correspondence
American Institute of Electrical Engineers
F. HALLETT LOVELL, Jr. ^
President and Treasurer, Lovell-McConnell BAanufacturinir Co.
EDWARD B. WAITE ^
Head, Instruction Department, American School of Correspondence
AmOTican Society of Mechanical Enarlneers
G. G. LUTHY ^
Secretary and Advertising Manager. The Bartholomew Company
H. WILKINS PERRY ^
Manaffer, The Technical Press Bureau, New York City
HARRIS C. TROW, S. B., Managing Editor
Editor-in-Chief, Textbook Department. American School of Correspondence
American Institute of Electrical Engineers
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Authorities Consulted
THE editors have freely consulted the standard technical literature of
America and Europe in the preparation of these volumes. They
desire to express their indebtedness, particularly, to the following^
eminent authorities, whose well-known treatises should be in the library of
everyone interested in the Automobile and allied subjects.
Grateful acknowledgment is here made also for the invaluable co-oper-
ation of the foremost Automobile Firms and Manufacturers in making these
volumes thoroughly representative of the very latest and best practice in
the design, construction, and operation of Automobiles, Motorcycles, etc.;
also for the valuable drawings, data, illustrations, suggestions, criticisms,
and other courtesies.
CHARLES E. DURYEA
Consoltinff Engineer
First Vice-President, American Motor Leasrue
Member, American Motor-Car Bflanuf acturers Association
Author of "Roadside Troubles"
OCTAVE CHANUTE
Consulting Engineer
Past President of the American Society of Civil Enffineers
Author of "Artificial Flight.'' etc
E. W. ROBERTS, M. E.
Member, American Society of Mechanical Enffineers
Author of "Gas-Ensine Handbook." "Gas Engines and Their Troubles," "The Auto-
mobile Pocket-Book," etc
BENJAMIN R. TILLSON
Director of H. J. WOlard Company Automobile School
Author of "The Complete Automobile Instructor"
SANFORD A, MOSS, M. S., Ph. D.
Member. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Ensrineer. General Electric Co.
Author of "Elements of Gas Engine Design"
GARDNER D. HISCOX, M. E.
Author of "Horseless Vehicles, Automobiles, and Motorcycles," "Gas, Gasoline, and
Oil Engines," "Mechanical Movements, Powers, and Devices," etc.
AUGUSTUS TREADWELL, Jr., E. E.
Associate Member, American Institute of Electrical Engineers
Author of "The Storage Battery; A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Theory, and
Use of Secondary Batteries"
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Authorities Consulted— Continued
THOMAS H. RUSSELL, M. E., LL. B.
Editor. 7^ Ameriean Cyelap^ia <^ftKe AutomobiU
Author of "Motor Boats." "History of the Automobile." "Automobile Driving. Self-
Tauffht." "Automobile Motors and Mechanism." "Isnition Timing and Valve Set-
tinff."etc
^^
CHARLES EDWARD LUCKE, Ph. D.
Mechanical Engin e e iin g Deimrtment. Columbia University
Author of "Gas Ensine Design"
VICTOR LOUGHEED ^*
Member of the Aeronautic Society
Founder of the Society of Automobile Engine e r s
Formerly Editor. Afotor
Author of "Some Trends of Automobile Design." "How to Drive an Automobile." and
"Vehicles of the Air"
R. P. HEARNE ^
Author of "Air Ships in Peace and War." and "Motoring"
H. DIEDERICHS, M. E. ^
Professor of Experimental Engineering. Sibley College. Cornell University
Author of 'Internal Combustion Engineering"
JOHN HENRY KNIGHT ^
Author of *Xight Motor Cars and Voiturettes," "Motor Repairing for Amateurs." etc
WM. ROBINSON, M. E. ^
Professor of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering in University College. Nottingham
Author of "Gas and Petroleum Engines"
W. POYNTER ADAMS ^»
Member of the Institution of Automobile Engineers
Author of "Motor-Car Mechanisms and Management"
ROLLA C. CARPENTER, M. M. E., LL. D.
Professor of Experimental Engineering. Sibley College. Cornell University
Author of "Internal Combustion Engines"
ROGER B. WHITMAN ^
Technical Director. The New York School of Automobile Engineers
Author of **Motor-Car Principles"
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Authorities Consulted— Continued
CHARLES P, ROOT
Formerly Editor, Motor Age
Author of "Automobile Troubles, and How to Remedy Them"
W. HILBERT
Asaodate Member, Institute of Electrical Engineers
Author of "Electric Ignition for Motor Vehicles"
SIR HIRAM MAXIM
Member, American Society of Civil Engineers
British Association for the Advancement of Science
Chevalier Legion d' Honneur
Author of "Artificial and Natural FUght." etc
^*
SIGMUND KRAUSZ
Author of "Complete Automobile Record." "A B C of Motoring"
JOHN GEDDES McINTOSH
Lecturer on Manufacture and Application of Industrial Alcohol at the Polytechnic
Institute. London
Author of 'Industrial Alcohol,'' etc.
FREDERICK GROVER, A. M., Inst. C. E., M. I. Mech. E.
Consulting Engineer
Author of "Modem Gas and Oil Engines"
^*
FRANCIS B. CROCKER, M. E., Ph. D.
Head of Department of Electrical Engineering. Columbia University
Past* President, American Institute of Electrical Engineers
Author of "Electric Lighting;" Joint Author of "Management of Electrical Machinery"
A. HILDEBRANDT
Captain and Instructor in the Prussian Aeronautic Corps
Author of "Airships Past and Present"
T. HYLER WHITE
Associate Member, Institute of Mechanical Engineers
Author of "Petrol Motors and Motor Cars"
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Authorities Consulted— Continued
ROBERT H. THURSTON, C. E., Ph. B., A. M., LL. D.
Director of Sibley College, Cornell University
Author of "Mannal of the Steam Engine," "Mannal of Steam Boilers,"
MAX PEMBERTON ^
Motorins Editor, The London Sphere
Author of "The Amateur Motorist"
HERMAN W. L. MOEDEBECK ^
Major and Battalions Kommandeur in Badischen Fussartillerie
Author of "Pocket-book of Aeronautics"
EDWARD P. MILLER
Professor of Steam Enirineerinff, Massachusetts Institute of Technolosy
Author of "Steam Boilers"
ALBERT L. CLOUGH
Author of "Operation. Care, and Repair of Automobiles"
W. F. DURAND ^
Author of "Motor Boats." etc.
PAUL N. HASLUCK
Editor. Work, and Buitding World
Author of "Motorcycle Buildhiff"
JAMES E. HOMANS, A. M.
Author of "Self-PropeUed Vehicles"
R. J. MECREDY ^
Editor, The Eneydopedia <if Motoring, Motor News, etc
L. ELLIOTT BROOKES ^
Author of "The Automobile Handbook"
S. R. BOTTONE
Author of "Ignition Devices," "Maffnetoe for Automobiles, ate.
LAMAR LYNDON, B. E., M. E.
Consulting Electrical Engineer
Associate Member, American Institute of Electrical Engineers
Author of "Storage Battery Euffineerins"
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Foreword
WITHIN recent years the internal-combustion motor and
the self-propelled vehicle have become such important
factors in the evolution of industrial, conmiercial, and social
life, that a distinct need has been created for an authoritative
work of reference embodying the results and methods of the
latest approved practice in the construction, care, and operation
of the various types of motor cars and other vehicles driven
by gas, steam, and electricity, and in allied branches of this
rapidly developing field of apparently unlimited possibilities.
It is the purpose of the Cyclopedia of Automobile Engineering
to fill this acknowledged need.
C^ The application of the internal-combustion motor, the steam
generator, the storage battery and electric motor, to the devel-
opment of tjrpes of mechanically propelled road carriages and
motor boats, is a far-reaching engineering problem of great
difficulty. The same is true of the airship motor and the appli-
cation of the gas engine to the development of efficient and
economical methods of power production for atrial navigation.
While not all details of these problems have as yet been finally
worked out or reduced to standard practice, sufficient progress
has been made to assure results of permanent value. In so
far as these results are embodied in the constructions used in
typical modem cars, they are presented in these pages with-
out any attempt at great refinement of engineering subtleties.
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but with all explanation of details essential to a working
knowledge,
C Special stress is laid on the practical as distinguished from
the merely theoretical or descriptive form of treatment, so
that these volumes will be found especially adapted for pur-
poses of self-instruction. They are designed not only to meet
the requirements of instruction for the novice, but also to
serve as a reference work replete with information and sug-
gestions of the utmost practical value to the most experienced
chauffeur and engineer.
C The method adopted in the preparation of the Cyclopedia
of Automobile Engineering is that which the American School
of Correspondence has developed and employed so success-
fully for many years. It is not an experiment, but has stood
the severest of all tests — that of practical use — which has
demonstrated it to be the best method yet devised for the
education of the busy man.
C For purposes of ready reference and timely information so
frequently needed in automobile operation and construction, it
is believed that these volumes will be found to meet every
requirement.
C Grateful acknowledgment is due the corps of authors and
collaborators — engineers of wide practical experience, and
teachers of well-recognized ability — without whose co-opera-
tion this work would have been impossible.
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Table of Contents
VOLUME II
Steam Automobiles . . . . By H, L. Towlet Page *11
Features of Steam Can— Steam Automobile Enffinee— Parts of Engine— Ther-
modynamics of Steam— Slide Valve— Compound Engines— Condensers— Throt-
tling and Reversinr—Fuels and Burners— Steam Generator^Fire-Tube Boiler^
Diaphrasm Regnlator— Steam Cause— Water Pump — By-Pass— Water- Level
Indicatoi^Air Pumps- Management on the Road— Flash-Steam Generators-
Firing Up— At the End of a Run— Lubrication— Fusible Plug— Low Pressure-
Scale— Filling the Boiler— Raising Gasoline Pressure— Water Pump— Gasoline
Pump — Cut-Oflf and Reverse — Care of Burner— Backfiring— Adjustments-
Packing— The Air System— The SerpoUet System— The Operation and Care of
Special Cars (The White Steamer. The Lane Steamer, The Stanley Steamer)
GOMMERCLUL. VEHICLES . . . By C, B. Hayward Page 119
Development— Requirements— General Design— Reliability — Econ<nny of Opera-
tkm— Classification— Gasoline. Electric Gasoline-Electric, and Steam Vehicles-
Types of CfMnmerdal Cars— Delivery Wagons— Trucks— Vans— Stages— Buses—
Taxicabs— Sight-Seeing Cars— Patrol Wagons— Ambulances— Fire Apparatus-
Emergency Repair Wagons— Farm Tractors— Heavy Road Train— Cost of Opera-
tion—Fuel Economy — Fuels (Gasoline. Kerosene, Alcohol, etc.)— Changing Gas-
oline and Kerosene Engines to Run on Alcohol— Producer Gas as Fuel for Trucks
—Lubricant— Tires— Horse-Power— Speed— Load Capacity— Operating Radius
Types of Automobiles . . . By H. L, Towle Page 321
Evolutk>n of Present Types— Elarly "Horseless Carriages"— Electric Vehicles-
Steam Cars— (Saaoline Cars— Special Types— Power Plant— Chassis— Range of
Action— Cost of Maintenance— Roadsters— Runabouts— Touring Cars— Tonneaus
—Buggy -Type Cars— Closed Bodies— Gasoline Automobile Types— Specifications
of Standard Types— Medium-Priced Cars— Low-Priced Cars— Small High-Grade
Cars— Cars for $1200 and Less— High- Priced Cars— Motors— Number of Cylinders
— Two-Cycle vermis Four-Cycle Engine— Air Cooling vemta Water Cooling —
Cylinders Cast m% Bloc, in Pairs, andSingly — Ignition— Gearsets— Number of
Speeds— Planetary versus Sliding Gears— Tires— Transmissk>n (Shaft or Chain)—
Frictkm Drive— Life of Car— Selecting the Car— Intended Use— Chauffeurs-
Selecting a Second-HandCar — ^Testing — Demonstration— Serial Numbers— Over-
hauling— Appraising— Getting Acquainted with the Car
Review Questions Page 375
Index Page 387
*For page numbers, see foot of pages.
tFor professional standing of authors, see list of Authors and Collaborators at
front of volume.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
PART I
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF STEAM CARS
Steam automobiles are propelled by engines similar in principle
to stationary and marine engines, and in form somewhat resembling
the latter. They are, however, of small size, and operate under
much higher pressure — usually from 300 to 600 pounds, but some-
times even higher.
The fuel is gasoline or kerosene, according to the type of burner,
and is vaporized by heat, mixed with air, and burned in a burner
similar in principle to those of gasoline cooking stoves, but of a much
larger size.
Steam is generated either in a boiler similar in principle to most
portable steam boilers, or in a special device known as a flash steam
generator, which is described on Page 59. The engine i^ controlled
by a throttle valve and a "cut-off" mechanism, which latter is ex-
plained under "Steam Engine Principles," Page 15. The burner
is regulated by automatic devices to supply more or less fire according
to the demand for steam. The water feed to the boiler is regulated
either by hand or automatically, depending on the system used.
Most automobile steam engines have two cylinders. In some
engines steam from the boiler goes direct into each cylinder, does
work by expansion against the piston, and is discharged into the
atmosphere at the end of the stroke. These are known as simple
engines. In other engines the steam enters one cylinder, expands
only partially, and is then transferred to a larger cylinder in which
the expansion is completed before the steam is discharged. These
are known as compound engines.
For reasons explained later, steam cars do not ordinarily require
a change in gear ratio to enable them to negotiate difficult roads and
hills. This renders their operation extremely simple, and to the
amateur is the most attractive feature of the steam car. Some cars,
notably the ^^^lite, are provided with a low gear for emergency use
Copyright, 1910, by American School of Correspondence.
11
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
only. With this gear the engine may run twice as fast as with the
regular gear, for equal car speed, thus giving it double the ^purchase
to overcome road resistance.
Owing to the fact that in steam cars the fuel is supplied to the
burner under a pressure of from 50 to 100 pounds, and that the steam
pressure is also high, a certain amount of watching is required to
keep the various joints, gaskets, and other connections tight. A
gasoline leak would be especially apt to lead to disaster, as the gaso-
line might be squirted some distance by the pressure and its vapor
could l^adily catch fire from the flame under the boiler. Such things
are prevented by regular inspection of the gasoline piping and con-
nections, and vigilance in this regard must be accepted as the price
of safe and satisfactory service.
MECHANICAL ELEMENTS OF THE STEAM ENGINE
The diagram, Fig. 1, shows in oudme the elementary working
parts of a simple double-acting steam engine. A is the cylinder,
and steam enters under pressure from the boiler at B, C and D
Fjg. 1. Elements of Simple Steam Engine.
are respectively the outer and inner cylinder heads, and E is the
piston, which is a steam-tight sliding fit in the cylinder. F is the
piston rod, which passes through a stuffing box G and is secured to
the crosshead if sliding between two stationary guides I J, K\^ the
connecting rod, which is jointed to the crosshead by the wrist pin L
and whose other end bears against the crank pin M at the end of
the crank iV. is the crank shaft (seen endwise) which turns in
stationary bearings in the engine frame. The piston moves back
and forth in the cylinder under the pressure of steam introduced
first into one and then into the other end of the cylinder, and its
reciprocating motion is converted by the connecting rod and crank
into rotating motion at the shaft.
In Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 is shown a stationary horizontal steam
engine working on the general lines of Fig. L Aside from the ele-
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
ments already mentioned and listed in the table, the things of chief
importance are the flywheels P and the valve mechanism. The
valve is operated by an eccentric / through an eccentric strap Y and
rod J connecting at K to the valve stem L. The valve itself, X, is
of the ordinary slide type, called from its shape the "D" slide valve.
It admits steam from steam chest M through steam ports W to
first one and then the other end of the cylinder, and affords an outlet
for the exhaust steam to the central or exhaust port between the steam
ports. The valve moves with a steam-tight fit over the faces of the ports.
Fig. 2. Stationary Engine — Side View.
Fig. 3. Stationary Engine. Plan View.
A, Cylinder. J5, Outer cylinder head. C, Piston rod. D, Crosshead. E. Con-
necting rod. F, Crank pin. Q, Crank. //, Crank shaft. /, Eccentric. J, Eccentric rod.
X. Eccentric crosshead. L, Valve stem. M, Steam chest. .Y, Steam pipe connection.
PP, Flywheels. Q. Crosshead guides. R, Valve stem guide. S, Engine frame. T.
StufBngboz. 17, Piston. V, Wrist pin. JFTT, Steam ports. X, Slide valve, y, Eccen-
tric strap. Z. Clearance space between piston and cylinder head at end of stroke.
13
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
HEAT AND WORK
HBAT TRANSMISSION
All forms of energy, such as light, sound, electricity, and heat,
are believed to be different forms of vibration, either of the molecules
of material substances or of the ether which is believed to pervade
all space.
Energy is indestructible, but any form of energy may be con-
verted into any other form. E. gr., electricity may be converted into
light, heat, or mechanical work, or it may produce sound by setting
the air in vibration.
Heat may be transmitted from one body to another in three ways:
viz, radiation and ahsor'ption, conduction^ aiid convection.
Radiation and Absorption. Radiation is the transfer of heat
from one body to another body not in contact with it. It takes place
equally well in air or in vacuo. The rate of heat transferred depends
partly on the distance separating the two bodies, and partly on the
nature of their surfaces. In general, light colored and polished
metal surfaces radiate heat more slowly than rough and dark colored
surfaces. The laws governing absorption are the same as those
governing radiation. A body with a good radiating surface will
readily absorb heat radiated to it from a more highly heated body.
If the colder body has a polished surface, it will reflect back a por-
tion of the heat it receives, and the hot body will, therefore, cool more
slowly.
Conduction. Conduction is the transfer of heat through the
substance of a body — ^solid or liquid — to other portions of the same
body, or to another body in physical contact therewith. Metals are
the best conductors of heat, but some metals, such as copper, are
better conductors than others. Other solids, such as stone, wood, etc.,
rank after the metals. Liquids are very poor, and gases still poorer,
conductors of heat. A vacuum is perfectly non-conducting, though
radiation may still take place through it.
Convection. Convection is the term applied to the absorption
of heat by moving liquids or gases in contact with heated surfaces.
If a blast of air be directed on a piece of hot iron, it cools far more
rapidly than it would in still air. The reason is that, as the air is a
poor conductor, its molecules do not transmit heat readily from one
to the next, but if each molecule on becoming heated is immediately
14
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
.5
replaced, heat is rapidly transferred. This property of air of taking
up heat rapidly when blown over a hot surface is employed in gaso-
line automobiles to cool the so-called radiators. In reality, the heat
radiated cuts a small figure compared with that dispersed by con-
vection.
What has just been said regarding air is equally true of other
gases. It is also true of most liquids. If a tea-kettle full of water
were heated from the top instead of from beneath, the bottom would
be a long time getting hot. The rapidity with which it actually heats
is due to the fact that the water heated by contact with the bottom of
the kettle expands slightly, thereby being reduced in density. A
circulation is therefore set up, the heated water rising and the cold
water descending to take its place.
TABLE I
Relative Heat-Conducting Power of Metals
Metals
*C. & J.
fW. & F.
Silver
1000
1000
Gold
981
532
Copper, rolled
845
736
Aluminum
665
Zinc, rolled
641
Wrought iron
436
119
Steel
397
116
Cast iron
359
Lead
287
85
♦Calvert & Johnson, f Weidmann & Franz.
TABLE II
Relative Radiating: and Reflecting Power of Different Substances
Radiating or Absorbing Power
Reflecting Power
Lampblack
100
Ivory, jet, marble
93 to 98
7 to»
Ordinary glass
90
10
Cast iron, bright polished
25
75
Mercury, about
23
77
Steel, polished
17
83
Tin
15
85
Brass, bright polished
7
93
Copper, hammered
7
93
Silver, polished
3
97
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
Almost all substances expand with rise of temperature. Solids
expand least, and in some the expansion is imperceptible. Liquids
expand about as much as solids, sometimes slightly more. Gases
and vapors expand a great deal if free to do so.
Before considering the expansion of gases under changes in
temperature, let us see how they act when the temperature is un-
changed. A gas is perfectly elastic, i. e., if not confined in any way it
would expand indefinitely. The attraction of gravity is all that pre-
vents the atmosphere surrounding the globe from dispersing into
infinite space. When air is partly exhausted from a closed vessel,
the remainder, no matter how small, expands so as to distribute itself
equally throughout the vessel.
If a cubic foot of air at atmospheric pressure be compressed
into one-half cubic foot without change in temperature, its pressure
will be precisely twice what it was before. In speaking of gas pres-
sures in this manner, it is customary to deal with absolvte 'pressures,
i. €., pressures above a perfect vacuum. Thus atmospheric pressure
at sea level is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch, and a cubic
foot of air reduced one-half in volume will have an absolute pressure
of 29.4 pounds. If again compressed into half the space, its pressure
will again be doubled, and so on.
This relation of pressure and volume is expressed in Boyle's
Law, which states that, so long as the temperature is unchanged,
the product of the pressure and volume of a given weight of gas is
constant. That is
PV = C
This is the most important of all the laws of gases.
Fig. 4 expresses the relation between volume and pressure of
a given weight of air starting at atmospheric pressure and com-
pressed to a pressure of 500 pounds without change in temperature,
also expanded to a pressure of one pound absolute. Horizontal
distances represent volumes, the volume at atmospheric pressure
being 'unity; and vertical distances represent absolute pressures.
To find the pressure of the air for any volume greater or less than one,
locate the given volume on the base line, then, from this point, read
up to the curve and find the desired pressure by moving horizontally
from the curve to the scale at the left.
As heat is a mode of motion, it follows that when all heat is with-
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drawn motion ceases, and the molecules, even of a gas, become
fixed. From experiments and theoretical considerations the abso-
Ivte zero, representing the absence of all heat, is believed to be — 273°
C., or approximately — 460° F. In most theoretical studies of the
behavior of gases, temperatures are reckoned from absolute zero
instead of from the arbitrary zeroes of the conventional ther-
mometer.
When a gas of given weight at an absolute temperature of 273
degrees — i. e., 0° on the customary scale — is raised in temperature
one degree without
change in pressure, its
volume is increased ^y.
A second degree of add-
ed temperature increases
its volume the same
amount, and so on. In
other words, for each de-
gree Centigrade of add-
ed temperature its vol- 5
ume is increased ^^ of ^
its volume at 273° A. ^
If degrees Fahren-
heit are taken instead of
Centigrade, the expan-
sion is ^-Jtj- of the volume
at 32° F. for each degree
of rise in temperature.
Five degrees C. equal nine j^g 4 ReiaUon Between Volume and Pressure of Air.
degrees F.
If the gas thus heated is so confined that it cannot expand, it
will suffer an increase in pressure in the same proportion, i. c, y\^
of its pressure at 0° C. for each degree Centigrade. If the gas,
instead of being heated, is cooled, its shrinkage in the one case or
its loss of pressure in the other will follow the same rule as above.
Theoretically it would follow that at — 273° C. — absolute zero —
the gas would have no volume at all. Of course that would be im-
possible, but at ordinary temperatures the gases behave as if the
assumption were true.
17
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
HEAT TRANSFORMATION
Specific Heat. The temperature of a body and the heat it con-
tains are two diflFerent things. A gallon of water at 100° F. con-
tains twice as much heat as half a gallon at the same temperature.
That is to say, twice as much heat was imparted to it in raising it to
that temperature.
Like quantities of different substances at the same tempera-
ture do not always contain the same quantity of heat. A pound of
water contains more heat than a pound of oil or alcohol at the same
temperature. It requires 7.7 times as much heat to raise a pound of
water one degree in temperature as a pound of cast iron.
The quantity of heat required to change the temperature of a
given weight of a substance one degree, compared with that required
to change the temperature of the same weight of water a like amount,
is called the specific heat of that substance.
TABLE III
Specific Heats of Various Substances
SOLIDS
»r-:::::::::::::
0.0951
Tin
0.0562
0.0324
Hteel (soft)
0.1165
Wrought iron
0.1138
Zinc
.0956
Glass
0.1937
Brass
0.0939
Cast iron
0.1298
Ice
0.5040
I^ad
0.0314
Charcoal
0.2410
Silver
0.0570
LIQUIDS
Water 1 0000
Mercury .0333
Alcohol (absolute) .7000
Benzine 0.4500
Ether 0.5034
The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one
pound of water one degree F. is known as the British Thermal Unit
(B. T. U.). Another unit is the calorie, which is the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram (2.2046 lbs.)
of water one degree Centigrade. One calorie equals 3.9G8
B. T. U.
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Force. Force is defined as that which produces, or tends to
produce, motion, and in practical work is usually expressed in units
of weight, e, g,, pounds, kilograms, or tons. A force may exist
without any resulting motion and, therefore, without work being
done. For example, the weight of any object represents the force of
gravity attraction between the earth and that body. The atmos-
phere exerts a pressure or force of approximately 14.7 pounds per
square inch at sea level.
Work, Work is done when force is exerted by or on a moving
body, and is measured by the product of the force into the distance
through which it is exerted. A convenient unit of work is the foot
pouTidy which is the work done in lifting a weight of one pound
against the force of gravitation a vertical distance of one foot, or exert-
ing a force of one pound in any direction through a distance of one foot.
Power. Power expresses the rate at which work is done. If a
foot pound of work is performed in a minute, the power is small.
If it is done in a second, the power is 60 times as great. The cus-
tomary unit of power is the horse-power, which is 33,000 foot pounds
per minute. WTiether a force of 33,000 pounds be exerted through
one foot of distance, or one pound be exerted through 33,000 feet in
the same time, the power is the same.
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat Heat may be converted mto
work or work into heat. Experiments have been made in which water
was agitated in a closed vessel by means of paddles run by falling
weights and the resulting rise in temperature of the water carefully
determined. From these and other experiments it has been ascer-
tained that one British Thermal Unit is the equivalent of 778 foot
pounds of work. That is, a weight of one pound falling 778 feet, or
778 pounds falling one foot, developed suflScient energy to raise one
pound of water one degree F. in temperature. A horse-power, there-
fore, equab 42.416 B. T. U. per minute. The combustion of one
pound of either gasoline or kerosene liberates approximately 19,900
B. T. U., but the kerosene is heavier for equal bulk. One U. S.
gallon of gasoline weighs about 5.6 lbs. ; of kerosene, about 6.25 lbs.
The combustion of a gallon of kerosene per hour develops theoret-
ically about 49 horse-power. Owing to heat losses in the boiler and
exhaust, and to radiation, etc., only a small fraction of this energy
can be converted into useful work.
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10
STEAM AUTOMOBILES
THERMODYNAMICS OP STEAM
Latent Heat. If water be heated in an open vessel it will reach
a temperature of approximately 212® F. (100 ®C.) and will then boil
away without further rise in temperature. The added heat is ab-
sorbed in converting the water into steam.
It takes far mgre heat to convert water into steam than to raise
its temperature. A pound of water heated to boiling from 32® F.
absorbs only 180 B. T. U., but in boiling away at 212° F. it absorbs
966 B. T. U. additional. At atmospheric pressure the
.nil-- volume of the steam is 1,646 times the volume of the
I I water whence it came. This bulk of steam must displace
an equal bulk of air, and part of the heat energy repre-
sented by the steam has been spent in pushing back the
air to give it room. This will be clearer from the sketch.
Fig. 5, showing a long tube open at the top and con-
taining a Uttle water at the bottom. On top of the
water is a piston supposed to be air ^tight and without
weight or friction. If the water be boiled into steam, the
piston will be pushed upward against the atmospheric
pressure a distance equal to 16 J^ X the original depth of
the water. The work in foot-pounds thus done will be
14.-7 X the area of the piston in sqvnre inches X the dis-
tance in feet through which it has moved. Approximately
7.45 per cent of the heat imparted to the steam represents
work done against the atmosphere; the remainder is spent
in overcoming the mutual attraction of the molecules of
water. The heat which has been absorbed by the
change in state from water to steam without change in
temperature is called the laterii heat of vaporization.
If a vessel containing water at 212° F., which is the
atmospheric boiling pointy be put under the receiver of
an air pump and the air partially exhausted, boiling
will take place spontaneously without further addition of
heat. At the same time the temperature of the water
will decrease, because part of the heat contained in it
has been absorbed by the conversion of water into vapor. If the air
pump keeps on working, the water will boil continuously, while its
temperature steadily descends. If the experiment be carried far
T
^ Fig. 5. Ex-
pansion of
Water in-
to Steam.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 11
enough, with the vessel so supported that it can absorb little or no
heat from adjacent objects, and if the vapor given off be rapidly
absorbed, e. g., by placing a tray of quick-lime or sulphuric acid
adjacent, the water may actually be frozen by its own evaporation.
This experiment shows that the boiling point of water — and
this includes other liquids also — is not a fixed temperature, but de-
pends on the pressure. All volatile liquids when exposed to partial
or complete vacuum give off vapor; on the contrary, this vapor when
subjected to pressure partially re-condenses and a higher tempern-
ture is needed to produce boiling. Under an absolute pressure -ot
147 pounds or 10 "atmospheres" the boiling point is 356v^° F.
At 500 pounds absolute pressure the boiling point is 467l4° F.
(242° C).
The "total" heat of steam at the boiling point corresponding
to a given pressure is the sum of its latent heat of vaporization and
the heat contained at the same temperature in the water whence the
steam was formed. The total heat of steam increases slowly, but the
latent heat diminishes nearly in proportion as the boiling point rises.
The space occupied by a given weight of steam diminishes approxi-
mately in proportion to the increase in pressure. In this respect the
steam resembles a perfect gas without change of temperature in
accordance with Boyle's Law.
Table IV shows the relation between pressure, temperature,
latent heat, total heat, and weight of saturated steam.
The experiment just cited of producing spontaneous boiling
in water by exhausting the air above it, may be duplicated with hot
water at any temperature and pressure. For example, the boiling
point of water imder 100 pounds absolute pressure is 327.6° F.
If in a boiler containing water at that temperature and pressure,
the pressure be reduced to 50 pounds by withdrawal of steam, the
water will boil spontaneously, absorbing its own heat in doing so,
till it reaches a temperature of 280.9° P. which is the boiling point
for 50 pounds absolute pressure.
Cause of Boiler Explosions. Owing to the property of giving
off steam under reduction of pressure, every steam boiler constitutes
a reservoir of energy, which may be drawn upon to carry the engine
through a temporary period of overload. In other words, the boiler
will give out steam faster than the fire generates steam, the difference
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12
STEAM AUTOMOBILES
TABLE IV
Properties of Saturated Steam
Total
Pressure
in
iwunds
persq.in.
above
vacuum.
Tempera-
ture in
Fahren-
heit.
Heat
in
liquid
from
32^ in
units.
Heat of
vaporiza-
tion, or
latent
heat in
heat units.
heat in
heat
imits
from
water at
32^
Density or
weight of
I cubic
foot in
pounds.
Volume
of 1
pound in
cubic
feet.
Total
pressure
above
vacuum.
1
101.99
70.0
1043.0
1113.1
0.00299
334.5
1
2
126.27
94.4
1026.1
1120.5
0.00576
173.6
2
3
141.62
109.8
1015.3
1125.1
0.00844
118.5
3
4
153.09
121.4
1007.2
1128.6
0.01107
90.1
4
5
162.34
130.7
1000.8
lf31.5
0.01366
73.21
5
6
170.14
138.6
995.2
1138.8
0.01622
61.67
6
7
176.90
145.4
990.5
1135.9
0.01874
53.37
7
8
182.92
151.5
986.2
1137.7
0.02125
47.06
8
9
188.33
156.9
982.5
1139.4
0.02374
42.12
9
10
193.25
161.9
979.0
1140.9
0.02621
38.15
10
14.7
.212.00
180.9
965.7
1146.6
0.03794
26.36
14.7
15
213.03
181.8
965.1
1146.9
0.03826
26.14
15
20
227.95
196.9
954.6
1151.5
0.05023
19.91
20
25
240-04
209.1
946.0
1155.1
0.06199
16.13
25
30
250.27
219.4
938.9
1158.3
0.07360
13.59
30
35
259.19
228.4
932.6
1161.0
0.08508
11.75
35
40
267.13
236.4
927.0
1163.4
0.09644
10.37
40
45
274.29
243.6
922.0
1165.6
0.1077
9.287
45
50
280.85
250.2
917.4
1167.6
0.1188
8.414
50
55
286.89
256.3
913.1
1169.4
0.1299
7.696
55
60
292.51
261.9
909.3
1171.2
0.1409
7.097
60
65
297.77
267.2
905.5
1172.7
0.1519
6.583
65
70
302.71
272.2
902.1
1174.3
0.1628
6.143
70
75
307.38
276.9
898.8
1175.7
0.1736
5.762
75
80
311.80
281.4
895.6
1177.0
0.1843
5.426
80
85
316.02
285.8
892.5
1178.3
0.1951
5.126
85
90
320.04
290.0
889.6
1179.6
0.2058
4.859
90
95
323.89
294.0
886.7
1180.7
0.2165
4.619
95
100
327.58
297.9
884.0
1181.9
0.2271
4.403
100
105
331.13
301.6
881.3
1182.9
0.2378
4.205
105
110
334.56
305.2
878.8
1184.0
0.2484
4.026
110
115
337.86
308.7
876.3
1185.0
0.2589
3.862
115
120
341.05
312.0
874.0
1186.9
0.2695
3.711
120
125
344.13
315.2
871.7
1186.9
0.2800
3.571
125
130
347.12
318.4
869.4
1187.8
0.2904
3.444
130
140
352.85
324.4
865.1
1189.5
0.3113
3.212
140
150
358.26
330.0
861.2
1191.2
0.3321
3.011
150
160 •
363.40
335.4
857.4
1192.8
0.3530
2.833
100
170
368.29
340.5
853.8
1194.3
0.3737
. 2.076
170
180
372.97
345.4
850.3
1195.7
0.3945
2.535
180
190
377.44
350.1
847.0
1197.1
0.4153
2.408
190
200
381.73
354.6
843.8
1198.4
0.4359
2.294
200
225
391.79
365.1
830.3
1201.4
0.4876
2.051
225
250
400.99
374.7
829.5
1204.2
0.5393
1.854
250
275
409.50
383.6
823.2
1206.8
0.5913
1.691
275
300
417.42
391.9
817.4
1209.3
0.644
1.553
300
325
424.82
399.6
811.9
1211.5
0.01)6
1.437
325
350
431.90
406.9
806.8
1213.7
0.748
1.337
350
375
438.40
414.2
801.5
1215.7
0.800
1.250
375
400
445.15
421.4
796.3
1217.7
0.853
1.172
400
5:)0
406.57
444.3
779.9
1224.2
1.065
.939
500
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13
TABLE IV— Continued
Properties of Saturated Steam
Temper-
Total
Heat
in
Heat of
vaporiza-
tion, or
Total
heat in
Density or
Volume
Tempera-
ature in
pressure
liquid
heat units
weight of
of one
ture in
Fahpen-
above
vacuum.
from
32^ in
latent
heat in
from
water at
1 cubic
foot in
pound in
cubic
Fi3u*n-
beit.
imits.
heat units.
32*'.
pounds.
feet.
heit.
32
0.089
0.
1091.7
1091.7
0.0003
3387.
32
60
0.254
28.12
1072.1
1100.2
0.0008
1234.
60
90
0.692
58.04
1051.4
1109.4
0.0021
474.6
90
120
1.683
88.1b
1034.4
1118.5
0.0049
204.4
120
140
2.877
108.2
1016.4
1124.6
0.0081
123.2
140
. 150
3.706
118.3
1009.4
1127.7
0.0103
97.03
150
160
4.728
128.4
1002.3
1130.7
0.0130
77.14
160
170
5.98
138.5
995.3
1133.8
0.0162
61.85
170
180
5.70
148.5
988.3
1136.8
0.0200
50.01
180
190
9.33
158.6
981.3
1139.9
0.0245
40.73
190
200
11.52
168.7
974.2
1142.9
0.0299
33.40
200
210
14.12
178.8
967.2
1146.0
0.0363
27.57
210
220
17.19
188.9
960.1
1149.0
0.0435
22.98
220
225
18.91
193.9
956.7
1150.6
0.0476
20.99
225
230
20.78
198.9
953.2
1152.1 .
0.0521
19.20
230
235
22.80
204.0
949.6
1153.6
0.0569
17.59
235
240
24.98
209.0
946.1
1155.1
0.0619
16.14
240
245
27.33
214.1
942.6
1156.7
0.0674
14.83
245
250
29.86
219.1
939.1
1158.2
0.0733
13.65
250
255
32.57
224.1
935.6
1159.7
0.0795
12.57
255
260
35.48
229.2
932.0
1161.2
0.0862
11.60
260
265
38.60
234.2
928.6
1162.8
0.0933
10.72
265
270
41.94
239.3
925.0
1164.3
0.1008
9.918
270
275
45.51
244.3
921.5
1165.8
0.1088
9.187
275
280
49.33
249.3
918.0
1167.3
0.1173
8.521
280
285
53.39
254.4
914.5
1168.9
0.1264
7.913
285
290
57.72
259.4
911.0
1170.4
0.1359
7.356
290
295
62.33
264.4
907.4
1171.9
0.1461
6.847
295
300
67.22
269.5
903.9
1173.4
0.1567
6.380
300
305
72.42
274.5
900.5
1175.0
0.1680
6.952
305
310
77.83
279.6
896.9
1176.5
0.1799
6.558
310
315
83.77
284.8
893.2
1178.0
0.1925
6.195
315
320
89.95
290.0
889.5
1179.6
0.2058
4.861
320
325
96.48
295.2
885.9
1181.1
0.2197
4.552
325
330
103.38
300.5
882.1
1128.6
0.2343
4.267
330
335
110.66
305.7
878.4
1184.1
0.2498
4.004
335
340
118.34
310.9
874.7
1185.6
0.2660
3.760
340
345
126.43
316.1
871.1
1187.2
0.2830
3.534
345
350
134.95
321.4
867.3
1188.7
0.3008
3.324
350
355
143.91
326.6
863.6
1190.2
0.3195
3.130
355
360
153.33
331.8
859.9
1191.7
0.3391
2.949
360
365
163.22
337.1
856.2
1193.3
0.3597
2.780
365
370
173.60
342.3
852.5
1194.8
0.3812
2 623
370
375
184.49
347.5
848.8
1196.3
0.4038
2.476
375
380
195.91
352.8
845.0
1197.8
0.4276
2.338
380
385
207.87
358.0
841.4
1199.4
0.4521
2.212
385
390
220.39
363.2
837.7
1200.9
0.4780
2.092
390
395
233.50
368.4
834.0
1202.4
0.5051
1.980
395
400
247.21
373.7
830.2
1203.9
0.5336
1.874
400
405
261.55
378.9
826.6
1205.5
0.5633
1.775
405
410
276.54
384-1
822.9
1207.0
0.5945
1.682
410
415
292.21
389.4
819.1
1208.5
0.6270
1.595
415
420
308.57
394.6
815.4
1210.0
0.6610
1.512
420
425
325.65
399.8
811.8
1211.6
0.6670
1.434
425
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14 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
being supplied from the heat stored in the water itself. This is an
exceedingly useful feature of the ordinary steam boiler. At the
same time, and for the same reason, it is a source of danger in case of
rupture of the boiler shell. If a boiler explosion involved simply
the release of the steam already formed it would not be so serious a
matter; but when a seam starts to "go" the adjacent portions are
unable to carry the abnormal strain put upon them, and the result
is a rent of such proportions as to release almost instantly the entire
contents of the boiler. The hot water thus suddenly liberated at
high temperature bursts into steam till the whole mass drops to a
temperature of 212 degrees, and this steam is many hundred times
the volume of the water whence it came. It is to this fact that the
violence of boiler explosions is due.
To take an extreme case, if a boiler bursts under 500 pounds
pressure, approximately thirty-seven per cent of the contained
water will pass instantly into steam, and at atmospheric pressure
the volume of the steam will be over 600 times the volume of the
entire original liquid contents of the boiler.
Automobile boilers and steam generators are so designed as
to minimize the danger of explosion, and only ordinary care is needed
to insure entire safety.
Superheating. The foregoing paragraphs have dealt exclu-
sively with steam at the boiling temperature due to its pressure.
Such steam is called saturated steam. Steam will not suffer a reduc-
tion of temperature below this point; if heat be absorbed from it a
portion will condense. On the other hand, steam isolated from the
water whence it came may be raised in temperature indefinitely.
It is then called superheated steam. The more it is superheated the
more nearly does it act like a perfect gas.
Superheated steam is preferred for power purposes to saturated
steam, for the reason that the latter condenses more or less, both in
the pipes on its way to the engine, and in the engine itself. Steam
that condenses thus is a total loss, and it is more economical to add
suflBcient heat to it — ^before it reacLes the engine — to supply radiation
losses, etc., without cooling the steam to the saturation point. To
accomplish this in automobiles, the steam from the boiler is led through
one or more pipes exposed to the maximum temperature of the fire.
These pipes are called superheaters, or superheating pipes.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILKS
15
STEAM ENGINE PRINCIPLES
The leading mechanical elements of the steam engine have been
briefly described. It remains now to show the precise manner in
which the steam is used.
The Slide Valve. Fig. 6 represents an elementary slide valve.
In order to indicate the movements of the crank pin and the valve
Fig. 6. Elementary Slide Valve.
eccentric on one drawing, the crank shaft center is located at ^. B
represents the crank pin center with the piston C at the inner end of
its stroke. The larger dotted circle is the crank pin circle, and the
Fig. 7. Elementary Slide Valve.
small circle is that in which the center D of the eccentric moves.
With the crank pin traveling as the arrow shows, the valve is in mid-
position when the piston starts to move, and the first effect of its
movement is to uncover the steam port E, at the same time establish-
Fig. 8. Elementary Slide Valve.
ing communication between port £' and exhaust port F, Fig. 7.
At half piston stroke the ports are wide open and the valve starts to
return, Fig. 8. When the crank pin reaches the outer dead center
G the ports are again closed.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
A steam engine with valve arranged as above would take steam
through the entire stroke, and would exhaust at boiler pressure.
It would develop the maximum power of which it was capable at
that pressure, but no use would have been made of the expansion
force of the steam. For this reason, all practical steam engines are
made to admit steam only for the first portion of the stroke, i. e,y
about one-half stroke or less, the remainder of the stroke being de-
voted to expansion. In Fig. 9, suppose A represents the position
of a piston moving from left to right. The horizontal distance B C
Fig. 9. Theoretical Digram, i Cut-Off.
represents the stroke, and vertical distances represent steam pres-
sures. D E is the line of zero pressure, and F C that of atmos-
pheric pressure. Suppose steam is admitted at 50 pounds gauge
pressure during the first half of the stroke from G to H; the steam
port then closes and the steam expands with diminishing pressure
along the curve H 1. Since work is the product of force into distance
traveled, it follows that for each fraction such as 5 J of the piston
travel, the included area B G K J will represent the work done dur-
ing that portion of the stroke, and the area of the entire card BG H I C
will represent the work done during the whole stroke. In the case
under consideration, the area of the whole diagram is 84.4 per cent
of that which would have been produced if the steam had entered
during the entire stroke, yet only half as much steam is used.
A diagram such as Fig. 9 is called the indicator diagram or
indicator card, and is employed to study the internal action of the
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
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Fig. 10. Theoretical Diagram, k Cut-Off.
engine. The expansion curve of steam follows Boyle's Law with
sufficient closeness for practical puq>oses. Fig. 10 is similar to
Fig. 9, except that the steam is cut oflF at one-quarter stroke, point H.
In the foregoing, no
mention has been made
of the contents of the
steam passages between
the slide valve and the
cylinder, or of the clear-
ance volume between the piston and the cylinder head when the
crank is on dead center. These clearance spaces cannot wholly
be avoided, but it is desirable to reduce them as much as possible.
It is customary in indicator cards to represent the clearance space
by an area to the left of the actual indicator card. This area is
F L G B in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10. Its volume averages about 5 per
cent of the volume swept by the piston. Owing to the necessity
of taking the steam in the clearance space into account, the actual
steam consumption in Fig. 10 is a trifle more than half that in
Fig. 9.
The objectionable influence of the clearance may be neutralized
by closing the exhaust port before the piston has finished its return
stroke, thereby trapping the remaining steam at atmospheric pres-
sure and compressing it to boiler pressure. If this is done, none of
the entering steam is
wasted merely in filling
the clearance space. Fig.
11 shows the. effect of
compression on an actual
indicator card. It is not
carried to boiler pressure,
but only to point A.
Another reason for
using compression is to
cushion the reciprocating
parts at the end of their stroke, and prevent the shock which
may otherwise occur on suddenly admitting live steam.
As Fig. 10 shows, no great advantage is gained when working
with steam at 50 pounds by cutting off earlier than one-third stroke.
Fig. 11. Actual Card Showing Compression.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
If higher pressure is used, however, the cut-oflF can be considerably
shortened. Fig. 12 is a theoretical indicator diagram for 200 pounds
gauge pressure (214.7 absolute). The clearance is five per cent
of the piston displacement, and cut-off occurs at one-tenth stroke.
The weight of steam per stroke is about the same as in Fig. 10, but
the work done by the higher pressure is nearly two-thirds greater.
This shows strikingly the economic advantage of using high pres-
sure, provided the cut-off is shortened to correspond.
VOLUME.^
Fig. 12. Theoretical Card, ^ Cut-Off.
To produce a short cut-off what is known as outside lap or steam
lap is added to the edges of the slide valve. See A A Fig. 13. To
produce compression inside, exhaust lap B B is also added. Fig.
14 and Fig. 15 show how^ the valve mechanism is affected by these
changes. In Fig. 15 the piston is about to begin its stroke, but the
valve is no longer in mid-position. Instead, the eccentric has had
to be advanced through an angle, known as the angle of advance^
in order to open the port as the piston starts to move. The neces-
sary travel is also increased in order to accomplish the idle move-
ment when all ports are closed. As the diagrams show, the valve
reaches the end of its movement, returns, and closes the steam port
while the piston is in the first quarter of its movement. It then con-
tinues to move, but with only the exhaust open.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
19
It is customary, as Fig. 15 shows, to open the steam port a trifle
before the piston begins its stroke in order to avoid wire drawing
of the steam before the port goes fairly open. If this were not done,
there would be an appreciable drop
in pressure at the beginning of the
stroke. The amount of this pre-
mature opening of the valve is
called its lead.
Cylinder Condensation. WTien steam expands its temperature
drops by reason of expansion, following approximately the above
table for saturated steam. The effect of this is to cause the cylinder
Fig. 13. steam and Exhaust Lap.
Fig. 14. Valve Action with Lap Added.
walls to assume an average temperature which slightly increases
from contact with the hot steam and slightly diminishes at the end
of every stroke. The hot entering steam condenses on the walls,
and re-evaporates near the end of the stroke. This is very undesir-
able, and is avoided *by superheating the steam sufficiently to com-
pensate for the initia loss of heat to the walls. In addition, heat
Fig. 15. Valve Action with Lap Added.
loss by radiation is minimized by la^^ging the cylinder walls and
heads with asbestos, magnesia, or other non-conducting coverings.
When steam is used at pressures above 100 pounds, compowid
engines are preferable, though not always used.
Compound Engines. In a compound engine the work done by
expansion is divided as nearly equal as practicable between two
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
cylinders, called respectively the high^pressure and low-pressure
cylinders. The high-pressure cylinder is the smaller in diameter,
and it exhausts into the low-pressure cylinder instead of into the
atmosphere. In the diagram, Fig. 16, showing the elements of a
compound engine, the steam is being transferred from the high-
pressure cylinder to the low-pressure cylinder. The steam expands
by reason of the difference in the areas of the two pistons.
A compound engine may be considered as though the steam were
expanded wholly in the low-pressure cylinder, and the indicator
Fig. 16. Elements of Compound Engine.
diagrams of the two cylinders may be combined to show the total
work done, by shortening the horizontal distances of the high-pres-
sure card in proportion to its smaller piston area.
Fig. 17a is a combined diagram from the high- and low-pressure
cylinders of a stationary compound engine. Both cards are drawn
to the same scale as regards stroke, but the low-pressure card reads
from right to left. F is the point of admission to the high-pressure
cylinder. The slight peak at A is due to the inertia of the in-rushing
steam. At B the admission valve closes. At C the steam is released
and goes into the receiver between the cylinders. D Eis the exhaust
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
21
line, and E F the compression line. From D to E steam passes
from the high- to the low-pressure cylinder, the diflFerence between
the two lines being due to frictional resistance of the passages. At
Fig. 17a. Indicator Diagram of a Stationary Compound.
G the exhaust valve opens. // / is the compression line of the low-
pressure cylinder.
Fig. 176 is a combined high- and low-pressure diagram from
the engine of the White steam car. In this diagram the low-pres-
\
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Fig. 176. Indicator Diagram of a White Compound Engine.
sure stroke is shown lengthened in proportion to the piston area so
that the high- and low-pressure cards afford true indications of the
relative work done in the cylinders.
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22 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
Condensers. In the foregoing paragraplis steam is supposed
to be exliausted at atmospheric pressure. In other words, the
steam in the working end of the cylinder must overcome a back
pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch in the exhaust end. If the
exhaust steam were discharged into a closed vessel and condensed,
a vacuum would be formed containing only water vapor at a pressure
proportionate to its temperature. (See Table of Saturated Steam).
Evidently, a great part of the back pressure would thereby be
eliminated, and five, ten, or even twelve pounds might be added to
the height of the indicator card with no further Expenditure of heat.
This result may be accomplished by an apparatus called a coiv-
denser, consisting usually of a series of tubes cooled by water cir-
culating outside of them. The water of condensation, together
with the air carried through the engine with the steam, is removed
continuously from the condenser by a suitable pump, called the
air pump.
It has not been found practicable in automobile service to em-
ploy vacuum condensers. In some cars the exhaust steam is con-
densed, but only to avert the necessity for frequent stops for water.
In other automobiles, no condenser is used and the engine is not
even compound, sole reliance for economy being placed on super-
heating and a moderately short cut-off.
Throttling and Reversing. Steam engines are regulated partly
by the cut-off and partly by throtding. As has been pointed out
above, it Is impracticable to use a cut-off so short as to expand the
steam to or below exhaust pressure. Beyond this point reduction
of power must be had by throttling the steam on its way to the engine.
Stephenson Link Motion. A steam engine may be reversed
either by shifting the angular position of the eccentric on the crank
shaft by the use of a mechanism known as the Stephenson link motion,
shown in Fig. 26. A pair of eccentrics on the crank shaft — one for
the forward motion, the other for the reverse — by means of the eccen-
tric rods operate a curved slotted link A in which works a block pivoted
to the end of the valve stem. The link is controlled so as to cause
one or the other eccentric to be operative by connecting it to a strap
pivoted to the end of an arm, which is latched in the position corre-
sponding to the direction desired.
It is a feature of the Stephenson link motion that by rocking
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 23
the link toward (but not to) its mid-position the valve travel and
cut-oflF are shortened, and this feature is utilized to improve economy.
At the same time the lead is increased, i. e., steam is admitted before
the piston begins its new stroke. This is not a disadvantage at high
speeds, as the fresh steam has a cushioned eflFect on the recipro-
cating parts. At low speeds, however, the engine runs jerkily, and
consequently the cut-off is shortened, except at medium to high speeds.
The reason for the comparative non-use of speed changing
gears in steam cars is found in the fact that the steam engine, unlike
the gasoline engine, works most economically on a fraction of its
full load, i. e.y with short cut-off. Its power can at any moment
be increased by lengthening the cut-off. This, of course, sacrifices
economy, but is preferable to the complication of gear shifting.
FUELS AND BURNERS
.Gasoline and Kerosene. Gasoline and kerosene are hydro-
carbons — I. e., compounds of hydrogen and carbon — derived from
crude petroleum, and having certain characteristics in common.
Neither of them is a single homogeneous substance. Each is a
mixture of numerous similar compoimds varying slightly in chem-
ical composition, and likewise in density, volatility, etc. Either of
them, if heat be applied, will evaporate fractionally, the lighter con-
stituents first.
To steam users, the most important difference between the
two fuels is that gasoline evaporates freely at ordinary atmospheric
temperatures, and must be kept under ground or in sealed cans,
whereas kerosene evaporates quite slowly in the air, and for rapid
evaporation requires the application of heat. Both are inflammable,
though the liquid itself does not bum, but only the vapor rising from
it. The vapor of either if mixed in suitable proportions with air is
explosive. The vapor may be ignited by a flame, an electric spark,
or incandescent metal. A smouldering match or a cigar will not
usually ignite the vapor, though exceptions to this rule have been
recorded.
WTien hydrocarbon vapor bums in air, the products of com-
bustion are carbon dioxide gas, COj, and water vapor, HjO, to which
is added the inert nitrogen of the air, the hydrogen aitd carbon mole-
cules uniting with the oxygen molecules of the air. It follows, there-
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
fore, that the pure vapor unmingled with air is not explosive but will
bum only as it finds oxygen to support combustion, and the oxygen
must be present in sufficient quantities. A mixture very weak in
oxygen will not bum or explode, and the same is tme if the air is greatly
in excess. A tank full of gasoline will not explode if a match is touched
to its open mouth, but the vapor at the mouth will ignite. If, how-
ever, the gasoline is rapidly drawn off, air will enter to take its place,
forming an explosive mixture. If the
vapor of either fuel be subjected to a
sufficiently high temperature it under-
goes a chemical change by which a part
of the carbon is set free, and the re-
mainder with the hydrogen forms a fixed
gas which does not condense at ordinary
temperatures. If either gasoline or ker-
osene vapor be drawn through a red hot
iron pipe, the pipe will be coated inside
with carbon, and eventually clogged solid.
Burner Principles. The bumers of
steam vehicles are similar in principle to
the ordinary gas Bunsen bumer. Fig. 18.
In this bumer gas under moderate pres-
sure issues from the orifice A, and en-
trains with it a certain amount of air,
which, entering the aperture B, ascends
with the gas stream, mingling therewith and buming in a pale blue,
almost colorless flame at the top of the mixing tube C.
The simple form of bumer just described is not adequate for
steam vehicles. Combustion is too slow, and the temperature is
too low. In order to develop a high temperature the combustion
must be very rapid; this requires intimate mixture of the vapor
and air. Such a mixture is produced partly by giving the gas and
air ample time to mingle, and partly by injecting the gas under
considerable pressure. To diffuse the gas still more thoroughly,
it may issue through several orifices instead of one. The effect of
the pressure and subdivision of the gas streams is to draw in air at
high velocity. The flame is also short, considering the quantity
of gas burned. The more thoroughly the gas and air are mingled,
Fig. 18. Simple Bunsen Burner.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 25
the more quickly they will bum, and the shorter and hotter will
be the flame.
Types of Burners. Stanley. In the Stanley burner, Fig. 19,
there are two separate mixing tubes side by side, each of which feeds
half the burner. The fuel passes through the vaporizing tubes A A
leading to the injector nozzles, and it issues from the nozzles as a
hot gas, drawing air with it into the mixing tubes B B, The top
plate of the burner is of cast iron and has thin slots across the ridges
from which the combustible mixture issues. All the air needed for
combustion is taken into
the mixing tubes. The
flames are prevented
from striking back into
the mixing chamber un-
der the cast-iron plate by
the fact that the plate is
kept cool by the entering
mixture. If the slots
were wide the flame
might pass through, but
owing to the narrowness
of the slots any flame Fig. 19. Stanley Burner,
entering them is cooled
and extinguished. The top plate is of cast iron, for the reason
that sheet metal in ordinary forms has been found to warp and
Scale from the heat.
White. The White burner is similar in principle to the Stanley.
The corrugations in the cast-iron top plate are circular instead of
straight, and only one mixing tube is employed. The burner nozzle
in the later types has three orifices, whose size depends on whether
gasoline or kerosene is to be the fuel. The opening of the mixing
tube is adjustable to regulate the amount of air taken in. With
kerosene, which is the regular fuel in the 1910 White cars, a larger
air opening is required than for gasoline.
Lane. The Lane burner. Fig. 20, is made entirely, of steel
tubing, a large mixing tube delivering gas and air to lateral steel
tubes closed at their outer ends. Both the mixing tube and the lateral
tubes are drilled with small holes from which the mixture escapes.
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2G STEAM AUTOMOBILES
The Lane burners differs from the above in taking additional air
through the spaces between the cross tubes. In other words, the
mixture as it issues from the pin holes is over-rich.
The Pilot Light. An essential feature of the steam vehicle
burner is the pUot liglit. This is a small Bunsen flame supplied from
a separate vaporizing tube C, Fig. 19, and so placed as to keep the
main vaporizer hot, regardless of the condition of the main fire.
In most steam vehicles the supply of fuel to the main fire is under
Fig. 20. Lane Burner.
automatic control, and is reduced or extinguished at frequent inter-
vals when the engine is not developing its full power. The pilot
light serves both to keep the supply of fuel hot while the main fire
is extinguished, and to re-light the main fire when the fuel valve is
opened. In some systems the main fire may be automatically
turned on and off several times a minute.
Management of the Burner. To start up, liquid fuel is admitted
through a special valve to a cup at the base of the pilot light burner,
on the principle that a plumber's torch is heated up. When this
fuel is nearly consumed, the regular pilot light is opened. In three
or four minutes the vaporizer is hot and the main burner valve may
be opened. When a steam car is to stand for some minutes, the main
fire is always shut off either by hand or automatically; the pilot
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 27
light then contributes toward maintaining steam pressure till the
car is to be started, but it is not hot enough to prevent slow loss of
pressure. At the end of the run the pilot light is separately extin-
guished.
In the 1910 WTiite cars, the pilot light takes gasoline from a
small tank independent of the main tank, which carries kerosene.
The pilot light, although burning continuously, consumes very little
gasoline, and the small tank does not often have to be refilled.
The pressure necessary for the fuel supply of a steam car is
obtained by pumping air into the tank. A power air pump is con-
nected to the engine for this purpose, and is put in or out of action
by manipulating a valve or otherwise. Wlien the fuel tank is re-
filled, the air pressure must be pumped up by hand, unless special
arrangements are made. The ^^llite kerosene car, for example,
has a special hand-operated warming up valve in the gasoline line.
This valve may be used to raise steam for running the engine free
if the kerosene tank has just been refilled, thereby pumping up
pressure in the latter.
In the Stanley car an auxiliary tank is used, through which
gasoline is forced from the main tank by a pump on its way to the
main burner. The pressure is maintained in the auxiliary tank only,
and fresh air has to be pumped in by hand only to take the place of
that absorbed by the liquid gasoline passing through. Thus the
main fuel tank is not subjected to pressure as it is in other makes of
steam cars.
FIRE-TUBE BOILERS
The simplest form of fire-tube boiler, illustrated in Fig. 21,
shows the Stanley boiler lagged with asbestos. It is packed full of
steel tubes |J inch outside diameter, which run through from top to
bottom and have their ends expanded into the boiler heads. The
flames and hot gases pass up through these tubes. The boiler shell
and lower head are pressed in one piece from sheet steel, and the
upper head is riveted in. The shell is tightly wound with piano wire,
the strength of which is far in excess of boiler steel, making the boiler
very strong for its weight, and not liable to rapture.
In every steam boiler the upper space is reserved for steam to
give the water spray a chance to separate. In the type of boiler
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28 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
just described the steam space is approximately the upper third of
the boiler. As the fire tubes in this space are hot, they tend to
evaporate any water which strikes them. To ensure further that
the steam shall contain no water when it reaches the engine, it is
superheated by passing through a pipe, which is carried down
through the boiler and forms a flat coil in the hottest part of the
fire.
To protect the boiler from damage due to the water level be-
coming too low, it is fitted with a fusible plug. This is a lead plug
clamped in a suitable
brass fitting which is
screwed into the boiler
a few inches above the
bottom. The plug is
exposed to the heat of
the fire, but is normally
kept from melting by
being in contact with
the water in the boiler.
When, however, the
water level gets below
the fusible plug the
steam can no longer
keep it cool, and it
blows out. The noise of
escaping steam gives
Fig. 21. Stanley Bouer. warning to the operator
to shut off his fire and
refill. To facilitate this process a valve between the plug and the
boiler is closed to check the escape of steam and water.
Unequal expansion, due to warping or the like, will loosen the
tubes and cause leakage. Such warping inevitably follows if the
boiler is allowed to get dry, or if the burner is negligently fired up
without water in the boiler. Aside from the risk of permanent
damage from this cause, it is a tedious and troublesome job to re-
expand the tubes. No rule imposed on the steam car owner is more
stringent than to satisfy himself at all times beyond peradventure
that his boiler has water and enough of it.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 29
The Lane boiler, Fig. 22, combines some features of the fire-
tube type with those of the flash generator described in detail on
Page 69. Above the boiler proper, which is of the fire-tube type with
very large tubes, is a set of coils of brass tubing, brass being used
because it is removed from the most intense heat of the fire. The
water is pumped into the topmost coil and passes in succession
through those below, becoming thereby progressively heated by the
gases and flame coming up through the fire tubes. From the lowest
coil it goes into the boiler proper, being by this time partly converted
into steam. The water falls to the bottom of the boiler, and the
steam becomes superheated by contact with the hot tubes. By this
arrangement the fuel has been
made to give up all the heat pos-
sible, and pass off at a much lower
temperature than that of the steam.
AUXILIARIES AND CONTROL OF
FIRE-TUBE BOILER SYSTEMS
Diaphragm Regulator. In all
cars having fire-tube boilers the
fire is regulated automatically ac-
cording to the steam pressure. It
is assumed that the water level in
the boiler will be maintained sub-
stantially constant, either automat- pjg 22. Lane BoUer.
ically or by hand. It remains then
simply to maintain the steam pressure at the proper point.
That is done by means of a diaphragm regulator acted on by the
steam pressure, and controlling a valve through which the fuel passes
to the vaporizer. Fig. 23 shows the Stanley diaphragm regulator
in section. A diaphragm of sheet bronze or other metal has its
edges clamped with gaskets between two portions A B of the cas-
ing, and a connection at C leads to the boiler. The diaphragm
bears against a disk D backed by a strong spring E, The fuel
valve, usually of the needle type, is connected to the disk through
a guide and stuffing-box F as shown, so that when the spring is com-
pressed by the disk bulging under steam pressure the fuel valve
will close. The spring is under initial load equal to the normal
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30 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
pressure, and does not respond to the steam till the normal pressure
is exceeded. The effect is to cause the fire to be either on or off
most of the time, it being found that burners
of this type do not operate well when the supply
of fuel is considerably reduced but not shut off.
The spring tension is adjustable by turning the
hollow screw G.
Steam Gauge. In all steam cars the press-
ure in the boiler is indicated by a steam gauge
on the dash. Steam does not actually enter this
gauge, but pressure is communicated to it through
oil which fills the connecting pipe and the gauge
itself. The reason for using oil is to prevent
freezing in cold weather.
Water Pumps and By-Pass Valve. Water is
pumped into the boiler by a power pump. Fig. 24,
run from the engine. As this pump runs contin-
uously, a by-pass valve is provided, which, when
open, permits the water commg from the pump
to return to the pump supply pipe or tank. In
some cars, like the Stanley, the by-pass valve is
opened and closed by the operator, Fig. 25, ac-
^hragin R4"ufat<S!*' c'ording to his observation of the boiler's needs.
In the Lane car, an automatic device on the
principle of the thermostat controls the by-pass valve, but there is
also a hand by-pass valve.
Fig. 24. Power Pumps of Stanley Engine.
In addition to the power water pump, there is always a hand
pump, partly for emergency use if the power pump should get out
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
31
of order, but chiefly to pump water into the boiler when there is no
steam up and not sufficient water to make it safe to start the fu'e.
The Lane car has an auxiliary water pump worked by steam.
Water Level Indicator. In
early steam cars a gauge glass of
the form commonly used on sta-
tionary boilers was employed to
indicate the water level. These
gauge glasses are unreliable,
and with the high pressures now
employed are impracticable. In
their place is used a thermostat
device which depends on the
principle that water communica-
ting with the boiler, but cut off
from circulation, becomes cold.
The general arrangement is
shown in Fig. 26. -4 is a pipe leading from the water space of the
boiler, J? is a pipe similarly communicating with the steam space,
and C b a connection from A and 5 to a closed chamber D in which
Fig. 25. Stanley steering Wheel, Throttle,
and fiy-Pass Levers.
Big. 26. Principle of Thermostatic Water Level Indicator.
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32 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
is a thermostat. Suppose the water level is at M: the chamber D will
fill with water at boiler pressure. Nevertheless, as this water is not cir-
culating, it will presently become cold, and the thermostat likewise.
If now the water level drops to N the chamber D will fill with steam,
which as fast as it condenses will settle into connection C, The chamber
D and the thermostat will therefore be kept hot by fresh steam.
Evidently the thermostat may operate an indicator of any convenient
kind whose movement will show whether the thermostat is hot or
cold. In the Stanley, the thermostat is simply a copper U-tube
partly filled with water, which rises or falls in one end when steam
is produced or condensed in the other. In the Lane car, a metallic
thermostat is used, which operates by the differential expansion of
two dissimilar metals — copper and steel. This thermostat not only
controls the water level indicator on the dash, but is likewise con-
nected to the by-pass valve, thereby rendering the latter automatic.
Air Pumps. The power air pump for pumping up fuel pres-
sure has already been mentioned. When the main tank is not under
pressure, but only a small auxiliary tank through which the gasoline
passes, as in the Stanley, no power air pump is required. A hand
pump is always provided for emergency use and for raising pressure
to start. The Lane car has also a steam air pump.
Management on the Road. As will be understood from the fore-
going, the operator's part in managing the power plant — other than
attention to the throttle — is ordinarily limited to watching the water-
level indicator, and managing the by-pass valve — if not automatic —
in accordance with the water level. When the level drops, the by-
pass valve must be closed, thereby causing all the water pumped
to enter the boiler. When the water level exceeds the proper height,
the by-pass valve is opened, and water ceases to enter the boiler.
It is not practicable to open the by-pass valve part way, as this would
cause the water to go through the -valve at boiler pressure, and in
time the scouring action due^o the pressure would make the valve leak.
Blind adherence to the above rule will not always give as good
results as may be obtained through manipulation. For example, if
one sees a hill ahead, he can fill the boiler somewhat higher than its
usual level and give the added water time to get hot before the hill is
reached. This affords a reserve supply for surmounting the hill. In
the average hilly country, one can make a practice of pumping water
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STEAM-DRIVEN TOURING CAR, MODEL M40
The White Company, Cleveland, Ohio.
STEAM-DRIVEN TOURING CAR. MODEL 20
The White Company, Cleveland, Ohio.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 33
on down grades when littie or no steam is being used and the heat of
the fire is available to heat the incoming water. Near the bottom of
the hills the by-pass valve is opened and the ascent taken in good style.
If the accumulated pressure has caused the fire to shut off, the throttle
may be opened just before the bottom of the hill is reached, and the
drop in pressure will bring the fire on while impetus is being gained.
It is a general rule for all classes of steam cars that the fire shovldy if
possible, be **on*' before an up grade is begun. By proper manage-
ment the fire may be kept burning continuously in a hilly country,
while power is used only on the up grades.
In applying the above principles it should be remembered that
only the wetted inside surface of the boiler is available for making
steam. If the water is low, steam cannot be raised as rapidly as
when the boiler is full, assuming that the water is hot in both cases.
On the other hand, if the boiler is worked too full one may get wet
steam despite the superheater, with loss of power due to condensa-
tion. In an extreme case, enough water might even be carried through
to choke the clearance spaces at the cylinder ends. This would
probably result in a head being knocked out, or a connecting rod or
crank bent, as the water could not be ejected quickly enough by the
lifting of the slide valve to save the engine from severe shock when
the piston reached the end of its stroke. A boiler of the Lane type,
in which the water is partly converted into steam in coils above the
boiler proper, and in which the fire tubes are large enough to permit
combustion to take place inside of them, is an exception to the above,
in that superheating takes place chiefly in the "boiler."
The more rapidly fuel is supplied to the burner, the hotter will
be the fire. Where ample power is desired, therefore, the burner
is worked under more than ordinary pressure. The normal pressure
for the White burner is 50 pounds, although from 35 to 60 or 70
pounds may be carried. In the Stanley cars, which carry pressure
only in the auxiliary tank, 100 pounds is recommended. The Lane
cars may be worked under 30 to 80 pounds.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FIRE-TUBE BOILER CARS
This section deals in a general way with the principles to be
obsen^ed in the management and care of all cars having fire-tube
boilers. It also gives hints regarding scale prevention, cleaning of
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34 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
water tank, etc., which are applicable also to cars liaving flash
generators. It should therefore be read carefully, no matter what
type of car one expects to operate.
Firing Up. As will later be explained, it is customary at the end
of a run to blow down the boiler, for the purpose of ridding it of what-
ever sediment may be present. The blow-off valve is shut when a
few pounds of pressure still remain, and the condensation of this
remaining steam should suck the boiler full of water, provided the
by-pass valve is closed. The presence of this water is desirable to
protect the superheating coil when the fire is started. Therefore
if the car has a conventional fire-tube boiler with superheating coil
beneath, the first step is to ascertain whether the boiler is actually
full. Close the by-pass (if open), open the upper trycock, and if no
water comes out, work the hand pump. See that the water tank is
full. Open the throttle and the drip valve on the steam chest and
continue pumping by hand till water comes out. Leave them open
while starting the fire, to allow the water to expand.
If there is no pressure in the fuel tank, pump it up to the mini-
mum working pressure by hand. Admit gasoline to the cup by
which the pilot light is heated — the Lane car uses alcohol and a long
asbestos "wick'* — ^and light it. When nearly burned out, open the
pilot light supply valve slowly. If a blue flame does* not result,
close the supply valve and admit more gasoline to the cup.
After starting the pilot light, allow it to burn till the vaporizer
is hot, then open the main burner valve carefully. If it fires back
into the burner, shut it off, wait a minute or two and try again.
Turn the burner to full height gradually. If the flame is yellow
or smoky, it is not getting enough air; if it is noisy and lifts off the
burner, it is getting too much air. Once adjusted for a given fuel
pressure, the nozzle or air shutter should not need changing.
WTiile the water is getting hot, the oiling up can be attended to.
As soon as the pressure begins to rise, water will issue from the drip
cock on the steam chest. Close this cock and the throttle valve as
soon as clear steam comes out.
^^^len pressure reaches 100 or 200 pounds, get in the car, throw
the reverse lever to its full forward or backward position, open the
throttle slightly and close It at once. Repeat till the engine starts.
With some yards of clear way, work the reverse lever back and forth
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STEAISI AUTOMOBILES 35
with the throttle open only a crack, so that the car "seesaws" slowly.
This will work the water out of the engine and warm up the cylinders
till the entering steam ceases to condense. This process must not
be hurried. An attempt to cut it short is likely to result in damage
to the engine. As long as water is present the engine will run jerkily.
When it runs smoothly the car is ready to start.
On starting, the first few blocks should be run slowly to com-
plete the warming up process. If the air pressure b below normal
the air pump should be kept going.
At the End of a Run. On finishing a run, the boiler should be
blown down with the fire turned off. This should be done by open-
ing the blow-off valve near the bottom of the boilef . The escaping
water will carry with it whatever mud and precipitate that has
accumulated. Close the blow-off valve at about 100 pounds, and
the subsequent condensation will fill the boiler by suction from the
tank. If the water in the tank is covered with oil, the end of a hose
should be inserted and the tank flushed out to get rid of the oil. It
is a good plan to put a cupful of kerosene into the tank. It will not
only loosen whatever oil may be clinging there, but will help loosen
the scale liable to form, from hard water, so that on the next blowing
down the boiler will be left clean.
A thermostat water level indicator operates only when steam
is up. When the boiler is cold it indicates high water whether water
is present. or not. When the car is running a faulty reading of the
water level is usually soon noticed, and if it is overlooked there is
still the protection of the fusible plug. If, however, the boiler should
be fired up with no water in it, the fusible plug would melt without
the fact being heralded by escaping steam. Therefore the fusible
plug, like the water level indicator, is useful only when steam is up.
Lubrication. Steam cylinder oil, which consists of mineral oil
mixed with tallow, and sometimes having graphite added, is ysually
recommended for steam cars. Rarely do the makers recommend
straight mineral oil. The oil is fed usually to the steam chest for lu-
bricating the cylinders, and the reason for adding tallow is to cause
the oil to cling to the wet cylinder walls, which a straight mineral oil
will not do. With superheated steam, however, this is not always
necessary. The main bearings, crank pins, and cross heads are
lubricated by splash, the crank-case being enclosed for this purpose.
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36 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
The Fusible Plug. If the fusible plug blows out when the car
is running, the escape of steam may be shut off by closing a valve
usually interposed between the boiler and the plug. The fire should
be shut off at once, and if possible the car should be run to reduce the
pressure, thereby allowing the boiler to cool somewhat. When the
drop in pressure compels a halt, close the by-pass valve and pump
water in by hand till it shows in the lowest trycock. Then, after
replacing the fusible plug, the fire may be relighted and the water
level restored while the car runs.
If the plug blows simply because the by-pass valve has been
open too long, the by-pass can be closed, the main fire shut off, and
the engine run by jacking up the rear wheels, till water shows in
the lowest trycock.
Causes of Low Pressure. Low pressure is generally due to
insufficient fire. If the burner pressure is low, steam will not be made
rapidly. If the burner pressure is all right, the burner nozzle may
be clogged or the vaporizing tube may be choked with carbon. The
nozzle may usually be poked out with a bent wire without turning off
the fire. If, however, the vaporizer is clogged it will have to be
removed when the car is cold and cleaned with a drill or otherwise,
as the makers direct.
Occasionally the valve controlled by the diaphragm regulator
may be choked, and rarely the main burner valve. Either can be
cleaned by disconnecting and running a wire through.
Occasionally the pilot light may clog in the same way, usually
at the nozzle. The remedy is the same as for the main burner.
If the air pump fails to raise the pressure on the fuel tank to
the required degree, it is probable that the intake or outlet check
valves leak. If, as is likely, they have oil on them the oil may have
gathered dust. The valves should be taken out and cleaned, and a
drop of oil put on them to make them tight.
The various packings about the engine and auxiliaries require
occasional tightening, and once in a while new packing is necessary.
If the new packing is soft, e. jr., wicking, it may be put on top of the
old, otherwise the old must be removed. The packing should not
in any case be tighter than necessary to prevent leakage, for an un-
necessary friction is thereby caused. A slight leakage about the
water and air pumps may be tolerated to save friction. As the hand
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 37
pumps are rarely used their packings can be looser than those of the
power pumps.
Scale Prevention and Remedies. In sections where hard water
is used, the subject of scale is a serious one, and its treatment will
depend on the character of the mineral contained in the water. Fre-
quently it is possible to precipitate the mineral before putting the
water in the tank. Sometimes the addition of a small quantity of
lime will do this, sometimes carbonate of soda or "soda ash." Still
other waters are successfully treated by adding caustic soda. Some-
times the simple addition of kerosene to untreated water will loosen
the scale as above indicated. If these remedies are not successful,
the user is advised to send a sample gallon of water to a maker of
boiler compounds and have it analyzed, after which a suitable com-
pound can be recooimended. Scale allowed to accumulate by neg-
lect is not only very detrimental to the boiler by interfering with the
free flow of heat, but it seriously reduces the steaming power as well.
Instances have been known of the steaming capacity of boilers being
reduced fifty per cent or more by scale. At the same time the shell
and tubes get hotter than they should, resulting in unequal expansion
and leakage.
OPERATION AND CARE OF STANLEY STEAM CARS
General Description. The leading elements of the Stanley cars
have already been mentioned. The fire-tube boiler is located Under
the hood in front. The engine is simple, double-acting, and has
two cylinders, Fig. 27 and Fig. 28. The cylinders and valves are
shown in section in Fig. 29. The engine is suspended horizontally
just ahead of the rear axle and drives through a spur pinion and gear.
A sheet copper casing protects it from dust. Steam is used at 400
pounds pressure with a high degree of superheat. Stephenson link
motion is used, and the cut-off is shortened by pressing a pedal which
is held in position by a pawl on a notched segment on the engine.
Steam is carried to the engine through a flexible steam pipe having
a ball-and-socket joint where it connects to the steam chest.
In Fig. 30 is shown the arrangement of the steam and super-
heating pipes, the throttle valves, arid the cylinder oiling mechan-
ism. Steam from the top of the boiler passes immediately through
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38 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
Fig. 27. Stanley Engine. Top View.
Fig. 2S. Stanley Enjrine. Side View.
Fi^. 29. Stanley Engine, Cylinders and Valves in Section.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
30
the main throttle valve controlled by the operator, and thence to the
auxiliary throttle valve. The pipe then divides and the steam passes
by two smaller pipes down through the boiler, through the super-
heated coils, and up again through the boiler to the main steam pipe.
•Rocker OpQPGted from
C/'05SAei9(f ofBnginz
HL. r.'.-^;.'^^'
Fig. 30. Steam S^fstem of Stanley Cars.
The gasoline system is shown in Fig. 31 and Fig. 32. Instead
of using air pressure in the gasoline tank a power pump forces the
gasoline to the vaporizer under pressure maintained by a supple-
mentary or pressure tank. An automatic relief valve, Fig. 33, just
beyond Ihe power pump, returns
the excess gasoline to the tank.
A hand gasoline pump is provid-
ed for emergency use and for
filling the pressure tank when
the engine is not running. Of
the two pres.sure tanks, the first,
marked 2, is normally filled with
gasoline, and the other with com-
pressed air which acts as a cush-
ion. The ga.soline does not flow
through tank 2, but merely rises
and falls in it. The steam
automatic, controlling the fire, is shown in Fig. 23. Fig. 34 .shows
the water system. Two power pumps, Fig. 24, worked from
the engine, tlirow water through the water level indicator. Fig.
FiR. 31. Oasoline Pressure Tanks of
Sluiiloy Cars.
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40 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
26, into the boiler when the by-pass valve is closed. Opening
the by-pass valve causes the water from the pumps to return to the
tank. A hand water pump is provided for use when the engine is
not running, or when the power pumps fail. To operate the hand
pump, the by-pass valve must be closed, and the hand pump valve
opened.
Filling the Boiler. Before firing up, be sure that the boiler and
superheaters are full. To be sure of this, open the throttle valve and
steam chest drip, close the by-pass valve and work the hand pump
until water comes from the steam chest drip. If more convenient,
fill the boiler from the town supply by means of the coupling fur-
Fig. 32. Gasoline Ssrstem of Stanley Cars.
nished for this purpose, connecting to the blow-off valve. Never
light the fire until sure that the boiler is full.
At the end of a run open the blow-off valve at the front of the
boiler, and blow down to about 100 pounds. Fill the water tank and
close the by-pass valve, and the condensing steam in the boiler will
siphon the boiler full. Before blowing down, see that the pilot light
is out as well as the main burner. It can be extinguished by blowing
into the pilot mixing tube.
Raising Gasoline Pressure. If the pressure tanks. Fig. 31, are
empty and the pressure zero, proceed as follows :
Open the hand, gasoline pump valve and work the pump till
the air gauge registers 10 or 15 pounds. Tank 2 is now full of gaso-
line, and tank 1 is full of compressed air. Attach the hand air
pump to air valve, Fig. 32, and pump air into tank 1 till the gauge
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 41
indicates 80 or 90 pounds, which is the working pressure for the
burner.
If now the. fire is lighted and the car stands still, the pressure
will gradually drop, but may be raised in a moment by working the
hand gasoline pump. When the car runs, the power pump main-
tains the supply.
The air in tank 1 is gradually absorbed, and additional air is
required. This is indicated, first, by the vibration of the air-pressure
gauge needle when running; second, by a rapid
drop of pressure when the car stands still.
In case of doubt whether the drop is due to lack
of air or to a leak in the automatic or pump
valves, close the pressure retaining valve. Fig.
32. If the pressure still falls the air is insuflB-
cient.
Occasionally empty the pressure tank by
opening valve Z>, Fig. 31, and refill in order
to determine definitely the amount of gasoline
m it.
If the car is to stand some time with
pilot burning, close the pressure retaining
valve to prevent the gasoline from leaking ^ 33 ^^^^ ^uto-
back through the valves and automatic. Be ™*^^^ ^^i^; ^^^^^
sure to open again on starting.
Firing Up. The burner and pilot nozzles are heated before
starting by a separate gasoline torch furnished with the car.
After the nozzles are thoroughly heated, light the pilot by
opening its valve one turn and pointing the torch flame into the sight
hole covered by a slide, then close the slide and open the main burner
valve very slowly to give the vaporizer time to heat.
The throttle valve and drip valve, which were opened when
filling the boiler, should stay open while firing up. Close the throttle
at 20 or 30 pounds, lest the car should run away; then open the
blow-off valve and leave it open till the boiler is about three-quarters
full.
It IS best to start with about 200 pounds pressure and work
up by degrees, as there is then less risk of damaging the engine by
water.
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42 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
Always start the car with the steam chest valve open to allow
water of condensation to escape. Run the car back and forth slowly
till the engine runs smoothly, then close the steam chest drip valve.
Immediately before starting out open the main burner valve wide,
i, e,, one or two full turns.
If the boiler is under a hood in front, raise the hood when
firing up.
Cylinder Lubrication. It is essential to keep the engine oiler
constantly supplied. This oiler works automatically and the oil
tank should never become dry. Should this happen the pump will
Fig. 34. Water System — Stanley Cars.
become air bound and must be primed by disconnecting the oil
pipe leading to the steam pipe, and working the pump by hand till
oil comes out. Use nothing but the best superheat steam cylinder oil.
General Lubrication. All the bearings of the engine pumps
and rear axle should be oiled at least once a day. Steam cylinder
oil is suitable and is most readily applied by an oil gun. To oil the
eccentrics, squirt the oil into the top of the engine case between the
eccentrics, and it will run down over them and into the ball races.
The steering gear should be oiled about every two hundred miles.
Glass Water Level Indicator. The Stanley water system, Fig.
34, is controlled by a water level indicator which works on the ther-
mostatic principle explained on Page 31. A casting, of the sectional
form shown in Fig. 35, is located between the boiler and the
dashboard, and about at the normal water level. It is partitioned
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 43
into two parts, marked wcUer chamber and boiler chamber, Fig. 36.
Through the former flows the water from the pumps, entering at the
top and going out below to the boiler. Another outlet goes to the
by-pass valve, so that the cold water flows through the water cham-
ber whenever the engine runs. The other side, or boiler cham-
ber, communicates through D, Fig. 36, with pipes leading to the steam
and water spaces of the boiler. If the water level is above D the
boiler chamber is filled with water, which soon cools. If the water
level is below D the boiler chamber is filled
with steam. Into the boiler chamber projects
one end of a U-shaped copper tube closed at
that end, and at its other end conununicating
with a §ealed water glass on the dashboard.
This tube has its front end filled with water,and
its dashboard end filled up to about the level
shown. When the front end is heated by the
surrounding steam, steam is formed in it, whose
expansion forces up the water in the glass.
WTien the steam condenses, the water comes
down again. Consequently low water in the
glass indicates high water in the boiler, and
high water in the glass indicates low water in
the boiler.
When the car is standing, the indicator
may receive heat enough to send the water up
in the glass, regardless of the level in the boiler.
If, however, the boiler level is high the water
in the glass will soon drop when the boiler indicator,
chamber is cooled off by running the car.
Beside the water indicator, there is a low water trycock on the
dash, and a blow-off cock A, Fig. 36. In using the former, hold
it open long enough to be sure that the water issuing is not simply
water of condensation lodged in the trycock.
Should some of the water evaporate out of the water glass, it
must be replenished. If the U-tube is disconnected for this purpose,
great care must be taken that the front end of the U-tube, called the
stand pipe, has no air admitted to it, since otherwise it would not
operate. Ordinarily it is not customary to disconnect the U-tube
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44
STEAM AUTOMOBILES
at the stand pipe, but only at the water glass end. If the stand pipe
needs filling, disconnect both unions on the U-tube, unscrew the
stand pipe, turn it upside down, unscrew the union stub end, and
after filling replace the union stub end — the hole in the latter is so
small that the water will not run out. After filling the water glass,
loosen the union at the base of the stand pipe artd let water escape
till it is about an inch from the bottom of the glass, then tighten up
- . til '•'^"^ ( PT
Peturn to Water Tank ^^ "^
Fig. 36. Water Level Indicator in Section.
the union. This will allow any air in the vertical part of the copper
tube to escape, and insure its being full of water.
See that the water glass is cushioned by the rubber tube pro-
vided for the purpose at its upper end.
Do not shorten the U-tube. It must extend several inches be-
low the stand pipe to prevent steam from getting into the water
glass. The water level indicator only operates when the car runs.
Do not depend on it to show the water level, when firing up, but
proceed as directed on Page 41.
Sediment in pipes E E will render the water level indicator
inoperative. Use the blow-off cock A occasionally with valve C shut
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 45
To test the indicator, open petcock B, with boiler hot and the
car standing still. The boiler chamber will heat up and water will
rise in the glass. Close petcock fi, then open the by-pass, and work
the hand pump. The water should fall in the glass.
In winter to prevent freezing, use a mixture of water and gly-
cerine or alcohol, equal parts, in the U-tube.
Fusible Plug. The fusible plug is located in front, 3 inches above
the bottom of the boiler. In the later Stanley cars, after shutting
off the main burner and pilot, the escape of steam can be checked
by screwing a shut-off valve stem into the fusible plug fitting. If
possible, keep on running to cool the boiler, then close the by-pass,
and pump water by hand till the plug is cool enough to be handled.
Time is saved by keeping on hand one or more tubes with the lead
fitted. When water comes from the blow-off cock the fire may be
relighted — ^usually it is not necessary to use the torch.
If the low water is due simply to neglect to close the by-pass
valve, the by-pass may be closed, the pilot lighted, and the engine
run with the rear wheels jacked up till water comes from the
trycock.
The superheating tubes and the fusible plug fitting are driven
into place and held by friction. To start them, hammer them side-
wise, prying at the same time.
Water Pump. If the water pump fails to work, first see if the
tank is empty. Other than this there are three principal causes of
failure, viz: (1) The pump may be air-bound. To remedy, simply
open the by-pass valve and run. The air will work out readily since
there is no pressure against it. (2) The check valves Ttmy leak.
There are three check valves, one on the pump intake, another on
the outlet, and the third at the boiler. The intake valve is the most
likely to leak. Remove the valve cap and clean the valve ball and
its seat, being careful not to scratch them. If the boiler check valve
should leak, it would permit steam to escape into the water tank
when the by-pass valve was open. This valve can only be examined
when there is no pressure. (3) The pump packing Toay leak.
Tightening the packing nut generally suflSces, but occasionally re-
packing is necessary. Do not screw the packing nut tighter than
is necessary, as it causes needless friction; a slight leakage may be
tolerated. In case the power pump fails, use the hand pump, first
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46 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
running with the main fire off till the pressure is reduced to about 100
pounds. After pumpbg, close the valve with the pump plunger in.
Gasoline Pump. In most respects the gasoline pump resembles
the water pump. If it becomes air bound, it can be primed by using
the hand gasoline pump, which is much larger, and, drawing through
the power pump, will suck out the air.
The gasoline pump packing should not leak at all, as it is both
wasteful and dangerous. The pump is so small that adjusting is
seldom needed.
If the hand gasoline pump becomes air bound, unscrew the valve
which is open when the hand pump is used till it comes out. Press
the thumb over the valve stem hole when the pump plunger is pulled
out, and lift it off when the plunger is forced in. Repeating this
several times will expel the air.
If the hand gasoline pump and hand water pump work together,
the packing nut on the gasoline pump should be just tight enough
to hold the gasoline, and the water pump should have its packing
so adjusted that the pump will run perfectly free.
To pack the gasoline pump, first put in a thin leather washer,
then three of the special packing rings supplied by the makers, then
another thin leather washer, and screw the stufling-box nut only
hand tight. Do not use a tool to tighten it, otherwise the plunger
will cut out the packing.
Care of Engine Bearings. If the engine is regularly lubricated
the bearings will seldom require adjustment. If the bearings show
the slightest discoloration from rust they have been insuflBiciently
oiled. Adjustments are made as follows:
The crosshead guides are taken up by screwing down the nut
on the bolt holding the frame rods together. The crosshead balls
must be under suflScient pressure to keep them from slipping.
The wrist pins are taper and are adjusted with a screw held
by a lock nut. First loosen the lock nut, tuni up the screw till it
stops, then back it one-eighth turn and tighten the lock nut.
The crank-pin ball bearings are adjusted by removing the
bolt, taking out the plug, and reducing it slightly by filing. When
correctly adjusted the bearing should have no perceptible play.
The main bearings and eccentrics can only be adjusted after
the engine is taken out of the car. They are adjusted to take up lost
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 47
motion by filing or grinding down the face of the bearing cap, which
must be ven' carefully done.
Be sure the engine frame hangers are properly adjusteil. Should
the nuts work loose, the front end of the engine will sway, to the
damage of the engine case and gears. In adjusting the engine frame
bangers do not set them up so tight that they will not swivel around
the rear axle. If necessary insert shims of paper or thin brass,
removing the rear en^e case to gain access.
Operating the Cut-Off and Reverse. In the more recent Stanley
cars the cut-off is variable from one-quarter to one-half stroke. On
the engine is a quadrant from which the reverse lever works in connec-
tion with the reverse pedal. The quadrant has one notch into which
drops a dc^ attached to the reverse lever when the engine is "hooked
up," u e., operatmg on short cut-off. To hook up the engine, press
on the reverse pedal only. To release the dog, press a pedal beside
the reverse pedal, called the diUch pedal. This releases the reverse
pedal and a spring pulls it back, allowing the engine to cut off at half
stroke. The car should always be started with the reverse pedal
released, and the cut-off should not be shortened till the engine
attains good speed. If it operates jerkily, release the reverse
pedal by pressing the clutch pedal.
Care of the Bumen If the car does not steam well, look at the
fire first. See that the gasoline pressure is not below 100 pounds.
If the pressure is right, the gasoline line may be clogged in the
automatic valve, vaporizer, burner nozzle, or main burner valve.
If the burner has two mixing tubes, as in the illustrations, see if
both sides are affected; if so, the trouble is likely to be in the auto-
matic valve. If the two burner flames are unequal, the trouble may
be in the vaporizing tubes or the nozzle, more likely the latter. Clean
the nozzles by running a small wire through them with the screw out,
or by using a bent wire without removing the screw.
If the vaporizing tubes are clogged, uncouple at the back of
the burner, take out the bundle of wires from the tubes, and clean
the tubes and wires thoroughly, using the bundle as a swab. Ex-
tinguish all fire before beginning.
If the pilot light nozzle becomes clogged, use a screw driver
to turn the horizontal nozzle screw back and forth. A wire pro-
jects from this screw, through the nozzle orifice, and turning the
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48 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
screw causes the wire to clean the nozzle. Do this only with the pilot
burning.
To regulate the air received by the pilot, bend the pilot vaporizer ■
tube slightly away from the mixing tube for more air, or inward for f
less air. The pilot should bum with a blue flame slightly tinged \
with yellow, and may be adjusted while lighted. *
Never use a reamer for cleaning either the pilot or main burner
nozzle, as it is likely to enlarge the hole.
Sometimes after the automatic valve closes, the gas pressure
at the nozzles will reduce gradually, causing the burner to light
back. When next the automatic valve opens, the fire will bum inside
the mixing tubes with a roaring sound. This sound should be the
instant signal for closing the main bumer valve, and allowing the
mixing tube to cool.
If the bumer should fire back frequently and with a sharp
explosion, it would indicate either a leak in the bumer or a leak of
steam in the combustion space. To test for a steam leak, first get
up Steam pressure, then take off the bumer and examine the boiler,
then run the front wheels against something immovable and open
the throttle valve to see if steam escapes from the superheaters.
To Adjust the Throttle. If the throttle valve leaks it must be
reground or a new valve substituted. It may, however, appear to
leak owing to improper adjustment. There should be some tension
on the valve stem when the lever is locked in the closed position.
There is a distance rod running from the body of the throttje
valve through the dashboard close to the throttle valve stem. To
increase the tension on the throttle, adjust the nuts on the distance
rod.
To Adjust the Automatics. To carry a higher steam pressure,
screw the adjusting screw on the automatic valve further in; for a
lower pressure, screw it out. The same regulation of the gasoline
relief valve will produce similar variations of the fuel pressure.
To Lay Up for the Winter. Run the car on the road or with
the rear wheels jacked up till everything is hot, then extinguish the
fire and blow off the boiler. While steam is escaping, open the
safety valve and siphon valve and take out the fusible plug to clear
them of water. Empty the tank, take off the caps of the check valves,
and blow into the suction holes to clear the water from the checks
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 49
ahead. Take off the water indicator and empty it unless it is filled
with non-freezing mixture.
General Remarks on Operating. The commonest fault of
Stanley operators is opening the throttle too abrupdy on starting.
This is bad enough if the cylinders happen to be clear of water:
if they are not clear the results may be destructive. Always start
slowly, and do not come up to road speed till the engine runs smoothly.
Never open any of the valves more than two or three full turns.
They are screw valves, and if turned a dozen or more times they
will come clear out.
Practice reversing where you have plenty of room. The
ability to look and steer backward while operating the reverse pedal
and throttle is not a natural gift. After reversing, be sure that the pedal
has l>een released by pressing the clutch pedal before giving steam.
Never reverse when going up hill. Keep on going till you reach
the top.
OPERATION AND CARE OF LANE STEAM CARS
The Lane steam boiler and burner have already been described.
The engine, Fig. 37, is a cross-compound with Stephenson link
motion and simpling device on the back of the steam chests. The
simpling device. Fig. 38, which is operated by a foot plunger, con-
sists of a plug valve in a cylinder screwed into the back of the steam
chests. By suitably turning this valve, high-pressure steam is ad-
mitted to both steam chests for starting. The Lane chassis is shown
in plan and elevation in Fig. 39 and Fig. 40.
The fuel tank is under air pressure maintained by a power air
pump on the left side of the engine, supplemented by an auxiliary
steam air pump and hand air pump. Both the air and water pumps
are inside the engine casing with their plungers directly actuatetl
by the crossheads. The fire is regulated by a diaphragm automatic
valve, and the by-pass is controlled by a thermostatic device sup-
plemented by an independent, hand-operated by-pass controlled from
the steering wheel, Fig. 4L
Firing Up. See that there is water in the tank, also that the
level in the boiler is up to the lower trycock on the right side, Fig.
22. If the boiler is too full, open blow-off valve A, Fig. 42. To
vent the boiler, open the forced draft valve on the steering column.
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See that the gasoline tank is filled — filling cap is under left front
seat — and the air pressure is pumped up. To fill the tank, first
Fig. 37. Lane Engine, with Oil Case Removed.
close the air valve Z), Fig. 43, to retain the pressure in the auxiliary
air tank before unscrewing the filler cap. Unscrew filling cap slow^ly
w'hen there is air pressure.
Fill the tank entirely full;
it then requires little pump-
ing to raise the pressure.
Use gasoline only, not ben-
zine or kerosene.
Screw the filler cap down
hard. If necessary, soften
the leather washer with oil
Fig. 38. Lane Engine, Showing Simpling Device. ^^^ "lake it air tight. Open
valve D one-quarter turn.
If the gauge shows less than ten pounds, connect the hand pump
to valve E, Fig. 43, and pump up.
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51
See that the engine case is supplied with oil, and open the dam-
per in the dome over the boiler.
Fig. 39. Lane Chassis in Plan.
Pour about an ounce of wood or denatured ^alcohol into cup G,
Fig. 42, inside the right-hand bonnet panel. This alcohol will
saturate an asbestos wick under the vaporizer. Light the wick
through door H. In cold weather burn a litde alcohol in the cup
Fig. 40. Lane Chassis. Side View.
under the burner nozzle. If necessary, add more alcohol to G,
The wick should bum a minute or longer.
With the wick still burning open fuel valve J one-quarter turn
^nd cloije instantly: repeat if necessary. The fire will light if the
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vaporizing tubes have been suflBciently heated. Open* the fuel
valve slowly to allow the burner to heat up. To accelerate matters,
open the forced draft valve on steering column when steam pressure
begins to come up.
Do not let the flame bum yellow and smoke, and do not at any
time allow fluid gasoline to enter the burner. This will not happen
if the vaporizer is hot.
Blow out the expansion tube of the
water regulator by means of a valve under-
neath the car on the left side.
With some steam up, warm up the
engine by working the car slowly back and
forth. Put one foot on the brake and the
other on the simpling lever, set the reverse
lever either full forward or full back, and
open the throttle valve momentarily several
^'^-'o^t^ M!'"''^T!f*''o^^^^' times till the car just moves. Then move
Throttle, and By-Pass. •'
reverse lever backward and forward till car
moves freely. Go slow: haste may result in knocking out a
cylinder head.
For maneuvering in close quarters and for quick acceleration
the engine works better simple (with the simpling push rod in floor
down) ; otherwise the en-
gine should always l)e
compound. It is not nec-
essary to stop the car
before simpling the en-
gine.
On the Road. The
use of the forced draft is
to turn the exhaust gases
down under the car and pig. 42. Lane Boiler and Burner Fittings.
to stimulate the fire,
which processes are not necessary when the car is standing still or
runnmg slowly. When using the forced draft the damper in the
dome should be nearly closed.
To shorten the •cut-off bring the reverse lever back a notch or
two. Always have it full ahead when starting or running slowly.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 53
To pull out of a bad hole or up an unusual hill, use the simpHng
valve with the reverse lever a notch or two back.
If the valve K, Fig. 43, is open and the hand by-pass on the
steering wheel closed, the water feed will take care of itself. (See
By-pass Valves,)
If the fire goes out or backfires, shut the main burner valve at
once, using either the emergency valve by the heelboard or the
regular fuel valve J, Fig. 42. If the fire goes out on the road it may
l>e due to exhaustion of fuel, low air pressure, or to the pilot light
having gone out; or there may be water in the gasoline. If no liquid
fuel has got into the burner the fire may be relighted without the use
of alcohol if the steam is
above 75 pounds.
If the gasoline has
got into the burner it
should be given time to
evaporate before any
attempt at relighting is
made. If steam remains,
turn on the forced draft
first to help clear away ^ ., x t^ uw -^ T^»
^ -^ Fig. 43. Lane Dashboard Diagram,
the gasoline vapor, and
use extreme care in relighting. If the alcohol flame is applied to the
vaporizing tubes while liquid is in them, the gasoline and vapor ejected
from the nozzle will furnish ample heat for spee<ly relighting. After
the vaporizer has emptied itself in this fashion and the gasoline
flame has burned out, the main burner valve may l)e slowly opened.
Backfiring in the burner may Ije due to a gas leak, perhaps at
the automatic packing; or to the burner being overheated, as from
insufficient draft.
If anything seenrLS to l)e wrong with the burner, close the emer-
gency valve first, and think it over afterwanl.
If the fusible plug blows out, first turn off the fire, then stop the
escape of steam by closing valve P, Fig. 43. Use the auxiliary
steam water pump or the hand pump to get more water in the l)oiler
before relighting; put in a new plug also after the water is up, and
open valve P. If valve P were closed the plug could not blow out if the
water should get low again.
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54 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
Do not let the water tank get etnpty. If this should happen,
leave the hand by^pass valve open for the first few rods that the car runs
after filling the tank, in order to allow the air to work out of the pump.
A steam siphon or inspirator is provided for filling the tank
from roadside sources of supply. To use it, connect the hose to the
siphon and put the strainer end entirely under the surface of the
trough or stream; open the lever valve just ahead of the siphon first,
and immediately open the steam valve. After the water starts, re-
duce the steam supply to just enough to lift the water. When the
tank is full close the steam valve first. A packing ring in the hose
connection is essential to maintain the necessary suction.
The air pressure is maintained automatically at a pressure
determined by the clearance of the air pump on the engine. The
clearance space is adjustable by a screw reached from the outside
which should be screwed in to increase the pressure. In emergencies
the auxiliary steam air pump may be used, or the hand air pump, or,
if the pressure is excessive, the air valve D may be closed, which
prevents the engine from pumping further.
The steam air pump may be used for inflating tires by connect-
ing the air hose at F, Fig. 43; if more than tank pressure is desired,
close valve I to prevent the air from going to the tanks.
Lubrication. The makers of the Lane car recommend mineral
cylinder oil rather than the usual steam cylinder oil. In winter it
may be thinned with 22? red paraffine. This oil is normally supplied
only to the engine case, which is enclosed oil-tight and should be
filled with oil above the partition. Enough oil is carried by the
piston and valve rods into the cylinders and steam chest for ordinary
interior lubrication. A stroke of the cylinder oil pump is, however,
beneficial on starting or when running very slowly. To fe^ to the
cylinders, open valve it, Fig. 43, and work pump T, By opening
valve Q, oil is fed from pump T to the steam pumps instead of to the
cylinders.
Refill the engine case as often as inspection shows it to be neces-
sary, and dip into the oil to be sure that its consistency is right. If
the oil is dirty or thick, change it completely. Water under the oil
is drawn off from the petcocks underneath.
Packings. The stuffing-boxes of the piston and valve rods and
the steam pumps should be tight enough not to leak appreciably,
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
yet not -so tight as to cause needless friction. The presence of waier
in the case after a run indicates leakage. To lest leakage, remove
the front footboard and engine case cover and run the car slowly
under its own power. Occasionally the stuflSng-boxes will need to
be repacked.
If a gland teaks badly the packing will wear out quickly. On
the other hand, there is no object in tightening the gland excessively.
It is well to take a look at the glands after every hard run and tighten
them a trifle, if needed.
Use Vidcabeston packing for piston and valve rods, also a ring
of it top and bottom for the air pump gland with an ordinary soft
asbestos wick between. Apply the latter wet and graphited. For
the water pump use hemp cord. Put the packing under the follower,
not between it and the nut.
Fig. 44. Lane Water System.
By-Pass Valves. The water system is shown in Fig. 44. The
hand by-pass valve A on the steering post is normally closed, and
the automatic by-pass N controls the flow of water to the boiler or
back to the tank. If A is open no water goes to the boiler, regardless
of what the automatic by-pass may do. If the cut-off valve K (see
also Fig. 43) is closed, all the ,vater goes to the boiler irrespective of
the automatic by-pass, unless valve A be open. In other words,
the feed is automatic when valve A is closed and A' is open. It is
controlled by hand when A" is dased and ^1 is manipulated.
The automatic by-pass is operated by a thermostat on the
dashboard, which also operates the water level indicator. This
thermostat is essentially an expansion tube connected to the boiler
at the desired water level. If the water is* below that point the tube
is filled with steam and is therefore hot. It then clases the by-pass
valve and holds the indicator hand in the corresponding position.
WTien the water level rises above the point of connection the steam
condenses and the pipe fills with water, which becomes cool and
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allows the tube to contract, open the by-pass valve, and move the
indicator hand accordingly. A second expansion tube lower down
moves the indicator hand still further if the water level gets below
normal. The indicator hand may move from right to left frequently,
owing to the successive opening and closing of the by-pass.
When the car is cold, the indicator does not operate and the
water level must be ascertained by the trycocks. To keep the ex-
pansion tubes clear always blow them out when firing up, using the
blow-out valves on the left side of dash.
yww^JrU
BUfiNE.R
SHUT' OFF
VALVE
t
Lane ^Vir Ssrstem.
The Air System. The air pressure should be 30 or 40 to 80
pounds, depending on the power desired. In case the engine air
pump fails to maintain pressure automatically, investigate for leaks
or clogged air valves as follows: first, the gland around the pump
plunger may leak; second, the pump check valves outside the case
may not seat, owing to dirt; third, oil working in around the pump
plunger may have gained the valves, or it may have worked through
the air pipe and clogged it at some point; and, fourth, there may be
leaks elsewhere.
The remedy in each case is obvious. Gasoline absorbs some
air and the pressure will go down a trifle after filling the tank
even if there is no leak. To test tightness of the check valve in de-
livery pipe from enghie air pump, loosen the union between pump
and check, and hold a cup of water to close the end of the pipe. If
air escapes open the check valve, clean and put a drop of heavy
mineral oil on it; screw the cap down tight. The pressure may be
relieved from the check valve in the delivery pipe from the steam air
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 57
pump by closing valve /, Fig. 45. To localize a leak if there is not
time to stop it, leave the air valve D clased. Hfint for trouble four
with soapy water or oil.
Water Pump. The water pump may fail from being air bound.
To clear it of air, run with by-pass open. The most probable cause
is leaky packing in control valve A^ or a leak in the suction pipe.
Occasionally dirt may prevent the check valve from closing.
Fuel Regulator. This regulator is of the ordinary diaphragm,
type. To adjust it, screw the adjusting screw F, Fig. 42, inward
to increase the boiler pressure. The normal pressure b about 325
pounds. Do not screw the packing gland tighter than is necessary,
or the automatic will be sluggish. If water issues around screw Y
the diaphragm is cracked and must be replaced. For packing the
valve stem use asbestos wick, wet and graphited. Never put oil on
this gland.
General Hints. Use the regulating valve W, Fig. 42, of the pilot
light only to regulate the flame, not to shut it off. If the nozzle X
becomes choked, unscrew it with pliers and open the hole with a
fine wire; do not enlarge it. The pilot flame should be four to six
inches long.
Blow off the boiler frequently by opening valve A, Fig. 42, if
the water is hard or dirty. Close valve P, Fig. 43, in fusible plug
fitting, if the fire is on when blowing off; don't forget to open it again.
To clean the vaporizing tubes, unscrew the plugs at the ends
and take off the automatic regulator. To remove the alcohol torch,
unscrew the cap from the end of the left side of the burner box out-
side and disconnect the union on the right side.
If any gasoline joints are taken apart, test them, after assembling,
under pressure with a lighted match.
In freezing weather the garage must be kept above freezing
temperature, and the car must not stand idle out doors long enough
to allow the small exposed pipes to freeze. To lay up the car, clear
all parts thoroughly of water.
The engine bearings are adjusted for wear as follows: main
shaft bearings, wrist pin bearings, eccentrics and crasshead slides,
by removal or adjustment of liners. The crosshead slides must
bear on balls with some pressure to prevent their slipping. Other
small parts are replaced when worn.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
PART II
FLASH STEAM GENERATORS
In the foregoing discussions a body of water large enough to
be treated as a reservoir of energy which may be drawn upon slowly or
rapidly according to fluctuating road conditions has been dealt with.
The type of generator which is now to be considered operates on an
entirely different principle — that of generating at each individual
instant approximately the precise quantity of steam demanded by
the engine, be that quantity small or great.
In substance, the flash steam generator is simply a small, con-
tinuous steel tube whose area may be that of a half-inch or five-
eighths inch circle, or even less, and which is bent in a coil of suit-
able form in order to present its entire surface to an ordinary burner.
Into one end of this water is pumped, slowly or rapidly, according to
the demand for steam. This water gets hotter as it passes along the
tube. Steam is formed, but as the coil is horizontal, the steam cannot
rise as in the fire-tube boiler. Instead, it is carried along with the
water, to which the formation of steam lends accelerated velocity.
At some point or other in the coil the water has passed entirely into
steam; beyond that point the steam is superheated. The outlet
of the coil IS connected to the engine through the throttle valve, if
there is one. None of the steam is stored, and there is no reserve
energy save what may be due to the quantity of water in the generator
tube. This quantity has no relation to the power of the engine,
since the rate of steam production is determined solely by the heat
of the fire and the wetted surface of the generator tubes.
Obviously an apparatus of this sort cannot be treated like an
ordinary boiler. The smaller the quantity of contained water,
the smaller will be the capacity for a spurt. Consequently the
generator and fire must be large enough to supply the maximum
demand on theVorst hills. Further, it is manifest that the fire and
Copyright, 1910, by American School of Corretpondence,
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60 ' STEAM AUTOMOBILES
water must exactly balance each other under all conditions. An
excess of fire would produce dangerously high superheat in the steam,
and an excess of water would immediately result in wet steam. The
smaller the capacity of the tubes, the more rigidly is this true. In
the (theoretical) extreme case of no capacity whatever no throttle
valve would be used, and the fire would have to be regulated up or
down in exact proportion to the flow of water to the generator. The
fire would have to be extinguished on the briefest stop, and any
chance drop in pressure would stop the car.
The chief advantage of the flash generator over the fire-tube
boiler is its immunity from danger of explosion, and its almost
(though not quite) equal immunity from damage if the water supply
is reduced. In the flash generator there is no such large quantity
of water as in the fire-tube boiler, and a continuous steel tube, unlike
a riveted or welded shell, cannot rupture in such a way as to liberate
at once all the water it contains. At the utmost, the tube might
crack or split, allowing the water to leak away rapidly, but with
nothing resembling an explasion. Again, if the steel tube should
become red-hot it might be weakened, but a leak would not neces-
sarily result.
To apply the flash generator principle in a practical manner,
it is necessary to use a series of flat superposed coils, since one coil
alone would be too short to provide sufficient heating surface. In
order to extract as much heat as possible from the products of com-
bustion rising from the burner, it is usual to introduce the cold water
into the top coil of the series, so that the water goes down instead of
up. To prevent the steam from backing up in the coils, and to pre-
vent the heated water from ascending, the end of each coil is bent
up to the top of the generator before connecting it to the next lower
coil. The lowest coil or coils contain only superheated steam.
TYPES AND CONTROL SYSTEMS OF EARLY FLASH
GENERATORS
The Serpollet System. The flash steam generator was first used
on automobiles by the Frenchman, Leon Serpollet, and in the early
Serpollet generators the flash principle was carried to an extreme
in minimizing the quantity of contained water. The tubes, instead
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 61
of being circular, were flattened and bent into a U-shaped section,
thereby reducing their cross-section to a minimum, without loss of
heating surface. The walls were exceedingly thick, and acted to
some extent instead of hot water, as a reservoir of energy. The
superheating coils, indeed, were customarily worked at a low red
heat. Owing perhaps to the tendency of these very small cross-
sections to clog when hard water was used, the U section tube was
abandoned by Serpollet some years ago.
In the Serpollet system the fuel (kerosene) and water were
pumped by simultaneous strokes of pumps suitably proportioned.
One lever operated both pumps, and the stroke of both could be
changed at will, thus giving slow or rapid production of steam. The
engine, to avoid difficulties due to extreme superheat, had single-
acting pistons with poppet valves similar to those used in gas engines.
A throttle valve was provided, but was used only for starting and
stopping, not for regulating speed. The latter was accomplished
partly by varying the stroke of the pumps — the effect of which was
to raise or lower the steam pressure — ^and partly by regulating the
cut-off. With a given steam pressure the torque was increased for
hills by lengthening the cut-off, and vice versd, A special feature
of the Serpollet system was a relief valve located between the water
pump and the generator. This relief valve acted partly as a by-pass
to divert water going through the pump back to the tank, but it also
automatically allowed the generator to discharge its contents back-
ward into the tank in case of excessive pressure such as might arise
from a fall generator and hot fire, immediately followed by complete
or nearly -complete cessation of the demand for steam.
From the characteristics of the Serpollet system the manner of
driving is readily inferred. Since the f^ed of both water and fuel is
proportioned for a given stroke of the pump to the speed of the engine'
and therefore of the car, it follows that the supply of steam is not
affected by the speed of the car. In other words, an increase in
speed automatically furnishes the added steam, provided that speed
increase does not necessitate greater torque. On the other hand, if
greater torque is required it must be accompanied by a still further
steam supply, such as lengthened pump stroke furnishes. If the
cut-off were lengthened without other change, the demand for steam
would be increased thereby, and unless this demand were supplied
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by increasing the stroke of the pumps the result would presently be a
drop in pressure; therefore, to maintain the benefit of a longer cut-
off the pump stroke must be increased.
As the steam supply in the SerpoUet car was strictly hand-to-
mouth, it followed that the driver had to anticipate a change in road
resistance or he found himself, on the one hand, stalled on a hill, or,
on the other hand, loaded up with more steam than the engine could
use. It was the regular practice with SerpoUet cars to increase the
pump stroke as much as possible in advance of striking a hill, thereby
ensuring a hot generator and plenty of steam. Similarly the stroke
was shortened before reaching the top. In this connection the greater
effectiveness of a comparatively full generator as contrasted with one
nearly empty is important. In the former, steam is made more
rapidly in proportion to the greater wetted surface of the coils.
The proper way to stop a SerpoUet car was to shorten the cut-
off beforehand so as to have very little water in the generator. Con-
sequently to get up to speed quickly, it was necessary to pump addi-
tional water by hand. This, of course, by upsetting the balance
between fuel and water, tended to produce wet steam, and the hand
pump was discontinued on attaining speed.
The White System to 1906. The WTiite system, m both its early
and its present forms, differs from the SerpoUet system in several
leading particulars. First of all, it is not a strictly hand-to-mouth
system. The generator contains a sufficient supply of water to act
as a reservoir for brief emergencies. By this fact the use of a conven-
tional throttle valve is made possible, thereby giving direct control
of the engine. The fuel and water feeds, instead of being rigidly
linked, are separate, and are governed by mutually interdependent
automatic devices.
In Fig. 46, the White system is shown diagramatically in its
1904 form, which was not greatly changed in 19()5-6. For simplicity
the generator A is drawn as a continuous coil in which the water
enters at the top. In reality, the end of each coil is connected to the
beginning of the next by a riser passing over the top of the generator,
in order to prevent the water in the upper coils from running down.
The lower coils contain only superheated steam. The burner is
shown at fi. It is supplied by air pressure on the fuel tank J, as is
tbQ u$ual American practice, C U the water t$ink, and D a pump
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63
run by the engine from which water passes through the hand pump
E to the generator. From the bottom of the latter steam goes through
a hand shut-off valve to the engine by way of pipe H.
Either the hand pump S or the power pump R is used to raise
air pressure on the fuel tank J. From thence the fuel goes through the
main valve K and the main biuner valve L, operated either from the
side of the car or from the driver's seat, to the thermostat JIf , which
will presently be explained. Thence it passes through the vaporizer
N to the burner nozzle 0. P is the pilot light, the fuel for which is
heated by the pilot flame itself, and controlled by the vMve Q.
White Ssnstem— 1905-1906.
As before intimated, the water and fuel controls are mutually
interdependent. The water feed is regulated by the steam pressure;
the diaphragm regulator F controlling the by-pass valve automat-
ically in the same manner that the diaphragm regulator of the fire-
tube boiler controls the burner valve. The left-hand end of the
regulator communicates with the steam pipe and the steam gauge,
and a diaphragm therein acts through the lever G on the by-pass
valv^. When the pressure rises above the by-passing point — about
350 poimds in the 1904 cars — the by-pass valve is opened and the
water returns through the body of the regulator to the intake of the
pump instead of going to the generator.
The burner is controlled, not by the pressure, but by the tem-
perature of the steam. When the by-pass valve opens and water
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64 STEAM AITOMOBILES
ceases to enter the generator, the supply of water in the latter dimin-
ishes by evaporation, and coils formerly filled with water presently
contain steam. The superheat is, therefore, increased and the temper-
ature of the thermostat / rises. This thermostat consists of a copper
rod in a steel tube so arranged that expansion of the copper rod closes
a fuel valve in the casing M. Presently, therefore, the burner is shut
off by the rising temperature of the steam, although the pressure may
not have materially diminished. With the fire out, however, the
engine rapidly depletes the steam supply in the generator, and pres-
endy the pressure drops to such a point that the by-pass valve closes.
As the pump D is connected to the engine and nms at a rate propor-
tioned to the speed of the latter, water is thrown rapidly into the
generator, since the pump is made larger than is necessary to take care
of the maximum demand for steam. The incoming water cools
the generator, and the steam temperature drops to such a point that
the thermostat re-opens the valve in J/. The fire is not reduced
and augmented by degrees, but rather goes on and off smardy, being
rekindled from the pilot light each time. When the car is running
under light load, the fire is off most of the time. As the demand for
steam increases, the fire is on for longer and longer periods, and
by-passing is less frequent. When the fire is on continuously the
maximum capacity of the power plant is reached.
The manner of driving Wliite cars of the above models differs,
as may be expected, from that of driving the Serpollet. There is
not the same necessity for constantly watching and anticipating road
conditions, since the generator capacity is jJuflBcient to tide over the
interval between the movements of the by-pass valve and the ther-
mostat. On fairly level roads and at moderate speeds the automatics
simply take care of themselves, and the driver's only care is to main-
tain proper pressure on the fuel tank. On the other hand, it will be
noted first that the thermostat always follows the by-pass valve, but
at a distance, as it were. That is, the water entering the top of the
generator must travel through the generator Wfore the thermastat is
**aware" of any change. This is not aKsolutely true, but it roughly
expresses the condition. Consequently the reserve capacity of the
generator is not a complete guarantee against the necessity of an-
ticipating road conditions. For example, if one happens to strike
the bottom of a hill with the by-pass valve open and the fire off, one
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 65
may run quite out of steam before the thermostat feels the water
supply and gets the fire started. In such a case it is not sufficient
merely for the fire to open up, as some additional time is required to
convert the water into steam; consequently it is the rule with White
cars of the above models to make sure (usually by opening the throttle)
that the fire is on before the grade is encountered. The sudden de-
mand for steam produces the needed drop in pressure to close the
by-pass and throw cold water freely into the generator. If this occurs
in time to start the fire, even the worst hills are taken with ease. It
is to be noted that the more slowly the engine runs, the more steam
per revolution it may receive from the generator, since the fire is in
no way dependent on the engine for its supply of fuel. The pump
D delivers fully as much water per stroke as the engine can use in the
form of steam, and the fire by continuously burning cannot fail to
raise it to the by-passing pressure. This fact, coupled with the large
reserve power of the White engine and the generator, explains the
remarkable hill climbing power of these machines in spite of the small
storage capacity of the generator.
In case it is not convenient to "rush" the approach in order to
have ample water and fire for the ascent, one may shut off the fire
by the hand valve. This cools the thermostat and also causes the
steam pressure to go down; the by-pass valve opens automatically,
and at the proper moment opening the hand burner valve gives a
full fire and rapid steam production for the ascent.
The same rule indicated above applies when a shorter stop is
made. The fire is shut off on closing the throttle or a little earlier,
the pilot valve remaining lighted. Thus the thermostat is allowed
to cool and a full fire is assured immediately on starting. It is true
that the thermostat will close if the car is standing still, but it would
probably be shut instead of open on restarting the car, and the
result would be no fire till the car had run some distance. Occasion-
ally, in the earlier White cars, the thermostat failed to operate owing
to sticking or clogging of the valve, and being located directly over
the fire it would "bum out" with accompanying damage to the gen-
erator coils. In the present White cars the thermostat is located
away from the fire and operates in quite a different manner.
The hand water pump E, Fig. 46, is seldom used except in case
the power pump D fails to operate. The 1905 and 1906 White cars
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have two power pumps, one of which operates through the automatic
by-pass valve, and the other is intended for use on hilb. The latter
pump 'normally by-passes all the time, but its by-pass valve is closed
by hand when extra water is required. In the present White cars
both pumps are power-driven; they deliver into the same pipe line,
and operate through the same by-pass valve.
TTie power air pump R is located at the front end of the engine,
and by pressing a foot plunger it is swung into engagement with a
pin projecting from the crosshead. Thfa type of pump has been
replaced in later models by one worked continuously from the engine
and having its intake check valve held open when air is not desired.
The hand pump S is used to pump up pressure for starting or after
refilling the tank.
In all the White cars the exhaust passes into a condenser at the
front end of the bonnet, and is pumped thence to the water tank C.
The condenser does not maintain a .vacuum, as the condenser pump
is not adapted to that end. However, the condenser obviates the
necessity of frequent stops to refill the tank. Generally one filling
of the water tank will last as long as a filling of the fuel tank.
All the White engines, prior to 1909, have had the Stephenson
link motion. At medium to high speeds the reverse lever is "hooked
up," thereby shortening the cut-off to about |- stroke in the high-
pressure cylinder. The ratio of cylinder volumes is such that with
this cut-off the steam is expanded about four times. For starting
and for slow speed the cut-off b lengthened to full stroke in the
high-pressure cylinder, and the expansion is done in the low-pressure
cylinder. The en^ne is provided with simpling valves by which live
steam is admitted direct to the low-pressure cylinder, for starting and
for overcoming momentary, unusual resistance. It is customary
to use these valves only until the car gets in motion. Besides the
added torque given by simpling, the engine is helped over the dead
center, when otherwise it would be unable to start owing to the
steam having cut off just before the end of the stroke.
WHITE FLOW MOTOR SYSTEM
From 1907 to the present time the White steam cars have em-
ployed a control system differing essentially from that previously
described and known as the flow motor system. By this system two
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 67
important advantages are gained. The thermostat, instead of acting
on the fire, acts as a supplementary control on the water supply and
b removed from the direct heat of the fire. This eliminates the
tendency to "bum out" which was the chief weakness of the thermo-
stat in previous models. Aside from that, in the new control system
the regulation of fire and water is simultaneous. It is not necessary
for the water to traverse the length of the generator piping before its
effect is felt by the fire; an increased water flow is accompanied im-
mediately by increased fire. For this reason it is practically impos-
sible to stall a White car of the later models by a change in grade or
surface, however abrupt.
In the following pages the 1909 and 1910 White cars will first
be described, and then the differences between these and the 1907
and 1908 cars noted. Where not otherwise stated the illustrations
are those of the 20-H. P., 1909 Model 0.
As regards the engine, generator, burner, condenser, and the
by-pass valve and its diaphragm regulator, the differences between
the later and earlier White cars are matters of detail only. In ap-
proaching the chief points of difference, viz, flow motor and thermo-
stat, the first point to be noted is that the capacity of the pumps is
purposely in excess of the utmost demands of the engine. As a cer-
tain quantity of water is pumped per revolution of the engine, it
follows that the by-pass valve will open more frequently as the throttle
is reduced and the cut-off shortened. Again, the burner regulation
by the flow motor is not absolutely "on and off" like a switch, but the
fire may bum at a considerably reduced rate without being extin-
guished.
Fig. 47 shows in diagram the course of the water from the tank
96 through pipe 18, water pumps 22, 23 and pipe 19 to the flow motor
120, and to the thermostat 122. The thermostat is arranged as a
shunt in the water line, part of the water going through it by pipes
100, 130, and the main flow going through the flow motor. The two
streams combine in pipe 83; and, after passing through the feed water
beater 5, the stream goes by pipe 127, 128 to the generator. 25 is the
water regulator. When the pressure exceeds 550 pounds the by-pass
valve opens and the water goes by pipe 34 back to the tank. 37 and
214 are steam connections. 121 is a return pipe connecting with
a relief valve in the flow roQtor, through whi<?h the excess retmn^ tg
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
Fig. 47. Water Connections, White— 1909-1910.
Fig. 48. Flow Motor, White— 1909-1910.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 60
the tank when the flow motor receives more water than it can
handle.
Fig. 48 shows the flow motor in section. Water enters the cylinder
at 123 through a connection not shown. It flows past the piston 191
through a graduated groove 195, and out through 124. As the flow
increases the piston is pushed forward, compressing spring 198,
and the more it is pushed forward the more water goes through the
groove 195. Near the end of its travel the relief valve 197 is pulled
from its seat and the excess water goes to the tank. Attached to
the piston and passing through stuffing boxes 125 and i4 C is the
adjustable stem 193 which terminates in the fuel valve L, Liquid
fuel enters from the tank at A'^ and passes out at J/ to the burner.
The valve has a long taper and is fully opened when the piston has
moved about J of an inch. The adjustment 194 in the valve stem
is set so that when no water is flowing the valve L is positively seated
by the tension of spring 198.
Two views of the thermostat are shown in Fig. 49. Steam
enters from the generator at 216 and passes out at 217 on its way to
the engine.- Water enters at 200 and goes out at 204. WTien the
steam temperature exceeds 390^ C. — ^which is the normal running
temperature — the rod 207 expands and pushes up the bell crank
lever 205, thereby opening the needle valve 201, allowiitg water to
pass to the generator. When the temperature drops a little below
390 degrees, valve 201 closes and the generator receives only the
water passing through the flow motor. Attached'to the thermostat
is a small "pyrometer or temperature indicator which shows when the
thermostat is working correctly.
The action of the flow motor and the thermostat may now be
understood. The forms of groove 195 and the fuel valve in the
flow motor are such that, while the ratio l)etween water flow and
fuel flow is constant, the fuel supply is slightly in excess, i, e., the
steam tends to get hotter and hotter; consequently when the car runs
the steam temperature will presently exceed the normal, with the
result that the thermostat valve, which at first was closed, now opens,
allowing water to enter the generator in addition to that going through
the flow motor. This additional water does not affect the fire in any
way, but it cools the generator, so that presently the thermostat valve
closes. In other words, while the flow motor controls the fire in sub-
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
FiK. 49a. Thermostat, White — 1909-1910.
Fig. 496. Cross- Section of Thermostat.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 71
stantial proportion to the demands of the engine, the thermostat
valve, by opening and closing, preserves the exact balance between
the fuel and water. This is the action when the by-pass* valve is
closed.
When the by-pass valve opens, all flow of water to the generator
ceases and the flow motor piston, returning to its idle position, ex-
tinguishes the Are. This shutting off and relighting may take place
in ^pid recurrence — once or even several times a minute.
The foregoing describes the operation when the pumps are
throwing water fast enough to force the flow motor piston to the end
of its travel. When, however, the pumps run slowly, the action is
slightly different, though the result is the same. The thermostat
valve will still open and close, because the fuel supply is still in excess
of the water passing through the flow motor, but when the thermo-
stat valve opens it will shunt enough water away from the flow motor
to allow the piston of the latter to go back somewhat, thereby reducing
the fire without increasing the total flow of water. In a word, the
effect at high speeds is to preserve the temperature equilibrium by
admitting more water, but at low speeds the same result is accom-
plished by reducing the fire.
The relief valve 197, Fig. 48, comes into play when the car is
running at high speed. It will be remembered that the water pumps
are large enough to throw all the water the generator can handle
even at slow speed, thereby furnishing ample steam for bad hills.
At high speed on good roads, therefore, they throw a great excess,
which is taken care of by the relief valve.
GENERATOR AND BURNER
These parts have not been changed save in dimension and detail
from the 1904 White modeb. The generator consists of several flat
coils in series, and having, in the 20-H. P. size, a capacity of about
five quarts. Water enters by the pipe 128, Fig. 50, and the steam
issues from pipe 129. The end of each coil is connected over the top
of the generator to the beginning of the next.
The burner Q has a cast-iron top plate whose concentric cor-
rugations contain a great number of cross slits through which the
mingled vapor and air issues. Fuel comes from the tank by pipe
A through the strainer B, pipe if, main burner valve J, and pipe
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72 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
K to the flow motor valve contained in L; thence it goes through
pipe M , vaporizer iV, and pipe NA to the burner nozzle O, which
in the 1909 to 1910 cars has three orifices. R is the mixing tube, and
S a shutter for regulating the air supply. The 1910 White cars use
kerosene regularly, and gasoline only for firing up. Gasoline can,
however, be used exclusively if desired. A smaller air supply is
needed for gasoline than for kerosene. P is the pilot light, which is
supplied by the pipe MA. G is a special "warming up" valve which
admits fuel directly to the vaporizer without going through the flow
Fig. 50. Generator, Burner, and Fuel Connections, 1909 Car.
motor. It gives a fierce fire and rapid steam generation when firing
up, and it requires to be opened for two or three minutes only, after
the vaporizer has become heated. In the 1910 car the pilot light B
and the warming-up valve G are supplied from the gasoline tank
by pipe A, Pipe H is separate and leads from the main (kerosene)
tank through the main burner valve J and thermostat valve L through
pipe M to the vaporizer N and the main burner.
FUEL CONNECTIONS
The fuel tank is divided uito two compartments X and X2, Fi^.
51 and Fig. 52, of which the latter contains gasoline for firing up. In
cars prior to 1909 there is only one compartment. Air is delivered to
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 73
Fig. 51. Chaasis^Side View. White— 1909-1910.
Pig. 52. Chaasla— Top View, White— 1909-1910.
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both compartments through pipe AD, By means of valves AB and
AB2 the air pressure may be retained on either compartment and the
engine kept running to raise pressure after refilling. All fire is, of
course, extinguished when the tanks are to be refilled.
Fig. 53. Engine— Pump-Side View, White— 1909-1910.
. PUMPS
There are two water pumps 22 and 23, Fig. 47 and Fig. 53,
which are mounted on the engine and are driven by a rocking lever
operated either from one of the connecting rods or from a separate
eccentric. They are piped in multiple and deliver alternate strokes
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 75
through the water regulator 25 operating the by-pass valve. Water
enters by pipe 18 and passes through check valves and pipe 33 to
the lower and upper pumps respectively. Pipes 35 and 19 deliver
the discharge to the generator. 34 is the by-pass return pipe.
Fig. 54. Valve and Pump Gearing.
In Fig. 53 is shown the condenser pump 39 which returns the
water of condensation to the tank. 67 is the power air pump. Pumps *
39 and 67 are driven from a single rocker like the water pumps.
The engine is of the compound marine tj^ with piston valves
— 1909 to 1910 models — and modified Joy valvie gearing. This
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76 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
gearing differs considerably from the Stephenson link motion used in
the models prior to 1909. It is, however, very simple. In consists in
substance of a mechanism which causes the valve to move in step
FiR. 55. Engine— Valvo- Side View, Whit«— 1903-1910.
with the lateral movement of the crank pin.s, whereas the pistons
follow the up and down motion. How this is accomplished nmy l>e
understood from Fig. 54, in which a piston 48, crosshead 75, connect-
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 77
ing rod 77, and piston valve 74 are shown. The steel rollers 72 run
in a grooved guide indicated by 71 in Fig. 55. This guide is pivoted
and inclined at an angle, so that the rollers move up and down at
the same time that they move from right to left. By rocking the
Fig. 56. Engine — Back View.
guide, its slope and, therefore, the movement of the valve may be
reversed, thereby reversing the engine. The cut-off is shortened
in the same way. The Joy valve gear has an important advantage
over the Stephenson link motion in the fact that shortening the cut*
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off does not, as in the Stephenson gear, increase the lead. It is,
therefore, possible to drive with a moderately short cut-oflF at slow
speeds, which is impossible with the Stephenson link motion, since
with the latter the inertia of the rapidly moving parts is depended on
to cany them without shock over the dead center against the early
admission of steam.
The engine has simpling valves operated by the mechanism 44,
14, etc., shown in Fig. 55 and Fig. 56. The relief cocks, 13, 13, are for
the escape of condensed steam when starting.
EMERGENCY LEVER
The rear axle contains a 2^ to 1 reduction gear for use on ex-
ceptionally bad grades. It is operated by a shift lever at the driver's
right, and is used only when the engine is otherwise unable to propel
the car. To engage this gear the car must be brought nearly to a
standstill. By setting the gears in their neutral position the engine
is enabled to run free. This permits air pressure to be raised before
starting on the run.
MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION OF 1909 AND 1910
WHITE CARS
The 1909 and 1910 WTiite cars differ in no essential respects
except that the 1910 cars use kerosene for fuel, and use gasoline only
in the pilot light and for starting. The 1909 cars, like those of 1910,
have separate tanks for the two fuels, but both tanks lead into a
single fuel pipe, and the user has his option of filling the main tank
with gasoline or kerosene. The following description is of the 1909
cars, but with the differences between these and the 1910 noted in
each case. The illustrations show the 1909 20-H. P. car. Model O.
The larger car. Model M, diflPers from the Model in no essential
respect save dimensions.
Fuel Connections. The plan view of the chassis. Fig. 52, shows
the 1909 tank arrangement in which both compartments X, X2 de-
liver through valves AB, AB2, to a single fuel pipe A. The 1910
model differs from this in having separate fuel pipes, the one from X2
leading to the pilot light B and warming up valve G, Fig. 50, and
the one from X to the main burner by way of pipe/f and hand valve J,
Fig. 50» Referring to Fig. 52, th^ ^ir supply pipe AD is in pernmnent
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 79
communication with tank X. 45 is an air retaining valve where
AD enters X2. This valve is usually open, but is closed to retain
pressure on X2 when X is being filled. If X2 becomes empty,
45 is closed to prevent air from entering the fuel pipe.
Fig. 57. Dash— Top View.
To Fill Fuel Tank. First extinguish all fire about the car, in-
cluding pilot light. Close main valves ABy AB2, and all tank-,
drain-9 and try-cocks, also valve 45. Loosen filler cap Y and allow
air to escape before removing. Fill through Y without removing
strainer and screw cap down air tight. Open valves 45 and AB2
and run engine on tank X2 while pumping air pressure in X to
fifty pounds, theiVclose AB2 and open main valve AB,
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If the pressure is exhausted from both tanks and there is no steam
to run the engine, press the plunger of hand air pump AA, Fig. 52
and Fig. 57, down hard and turn to the left, and work the air pump
till thirty pounds pressure has been raised. When pumping, clase
the hole in the top of the plunger with the ball of the hand.- When
through pumping, press the plunger clear down and turn to the right
to close the valve.
Valves AB and AB2 contain ball check valves so arranged as to
close automatically in case of a rapid rush of fuel, such as might
result from breaking of the fuel pipe. To unseat these check valves
in case they close, screw the valve stems down till shut, then open as
usual.
Filling Water Tank and Generator. Fill tank 96, Fig. 52, with
clean water. By overflowing the tank the oil floating on the water
will be flushed out. This oil comes from the engine and is carried
through the condenser to the tank. It is best to flush the tank after
a run, as the oil and water are then warm. Every few days remove
the flush plug at the rear end of the tank, insert the hose in the for-
ward part of the tank and flush the tank thoroughly.
To fill the generator, first press plunger of hand water pump 99,
Fig. 47, down hard and turn to the left once or twice to open the
valve. See that the throttle is closed and open the valve 111, Fig.
51 and Fig. 58. Work plunger till water escapes from the valve 111,
indicating that there is sufficient water in the generator. Close 111
and lock pump by pressing plunger down hard and turning to the
right.
If water gets into the pump when the valve is closed, the plunger
cannot be forced down to open the valve. Unscrew the stuffing-box
to let the water out at the top. Press plunger down and replace
packing and stuffing-box.
Pilot Light. See that the fuel tank is filled, and that the air
pressure is at thirty pounds or more.
To light pilot light see that valves D and F, Fig. 50, are shut.
Open valve AB, Fig. 52 (valve AB2 instead, if tank X contains kero-
sene), and open valve F one turn or more. Open door W and put a
lighted match inside. Open supply valve D slightly to admit gasoline
and close at once. Open and close again till suflBcient gasoline runs
into the drip cup to ignite from the match. Admit gasoline as needed
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 81
from valve D to warm pilot light thoroughly. When the pilot light is
hot, fuel will cease to run into the drip cup, as it has now become a gas
and will pass up through the pilot light grate and bum in the fire box.
Now set valve D at least one turn open. The flame should bum blue
and heat the pilot light grate red hot. Adjust the flame by valve F,
see that it bums steadily without roaring, and close door W,
Fig. 58. Dash— Side View.
To shut off pilot light, close valve D and open F wide.
To reinove pilot light for cleaning, unscrew union in pipe, MA,
Fig. 50, then give the inside of pilot light a tum with the hand to
release the bayonet joint, and the whole inside comes out. A new
pilot light can be inserted in this way if desired.
To Start Car. Fill the fuel tank and raise the air pressure to
thirty pounds as before.
Fill water tank and pump generator full.
Light the pilot light.
Let the pilot light bum about five minutes to heat vaporizer
iV, Fig. 50. Open warming up valve G slightly. If raw fuel drips
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from vaporizer nozzle O, close G till vaporizer gets hotter. Open
valvt G four or five times, about two seconds each time, to avoid
sudden rush of fuel. When main fire starts, leave valve G open a
quarter turn and watch steam gauge closely, as the pressure runs up
very fast when it starts. At 300 pounds pressure open the blow-off
valve 111, Fig. 58, till steam issues. When pressure again reaches
300 pounds, adjust warming up valve G so that not over twenty pounds
pressure shows on the vaporizer pressure gauge 209. This gauge
does not show air pressure, but simply the fuel pressure in the vapor-
izer, and is intended to indicate the strength of the fire. Set gear
lever 103 in central (neutral) position, open cylinder relief cocks by
turning itver 43,. Fig. 57, on dashboard to the left, push starting
pedal 93 all the way forward, open the throttle slightly, and carefully
work the watei out, of the engine by working reverse lever forward
and back till the ehgine starts running.
Now close y^lve' G and open the main burner valve J, Fig. 50.
Open the throttle just enough to keep the engine running till the water
is out, when" it should run smoothly. Turn cylinder relief cock lever
43 to the right-hand position shown in Fig. 57. Now release starting
pedal and push cut-off pedal 91 clear forward for about half a minute
and continue running the engine two or three minutes to get it warmed
up. Raise the air pressure to about fifty pounds, using power pump.
The car is now ready to start.
When firing up, the warming up valve G should not be kept
open more than two miputes or it will heat the generator r^ hot.
If there is no steam in two minutes it is a sign that there is no water
in the generator, in which case close valve G and pump water by hand.
The engine must be run slowly when working the water out of
it and when warming up. It must not at any time be "raced" when
idle. Idle running of the engine should be done in forward motion,
so the fan will draw air through the condenser.
To start the car, throw in forward or reverse gear, push the
starting pedal clear forward, and open the throttle slowly. Release
starting pedal as soon as the car gets in motion.
Burner valve J is kept open while the. car runs. Close it when
the car stands idle even if the pilot light is left burning.
On starting after a stop do not open the warming up valve if
there is steam enough to run the engine idle. Open valve /, start
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the engine idle, and run it till the water is worked out before starting
the car. This will give the steam pressure a chance to come up.
If necessary to use the warming-up valve, do not leave it open more
than two minutes.
The proper flame for the main fire is a medium between the
very blue light flame that lifts off the burner, and the heavy reddish
or yellowish flame. A bad mixture may cause the burner to light
back to the nozzle and is sometimes accompanied by howling. In
case of poor vaporization, first see that the pilot light is burning
with a good blue flame, as the pilot flame heats the vaporizer. If
the fuel supply is still insufficient, change the vaporizer or clean it
out as instructed.
As regards the fuel to be used, the 1909 cars should use gasoline
from valve ^152 for starting the pilot light. If kerosene is used in
the main tank, AB2 is closed when the pilot light has been started,
and ^5 is opened for warming up and running.
With the 1910 cars gasoline is used for the pilot light and for
warming, and valve AB2 is not closed till the end of the trip.
For running up, kerosene is supplied through valves AB and J.
Cut-Off Pedal. The use of the cut-off for economy has been
previously explained. The engine takes steam full stroke when the
cut-off pedal 91 is pushed clear forward, and with shortened cut-off
when the pedal is released. A stop pin 82 is provided to fix the
shortest cut-off which the engine can use to advantage. This is
determined by trial. The cut-off should never be so short as to cause
the engine to vibrate.
The Engine. In Fig. 56, the simpling valves 12 and 14 are
shown in position for compound running. Steam passes from the
high-pressure to the low-pressure steam chest through valve 12.
WTien the engine is **simpledX by pushing the starting pedal 93,
valve 14 is open to allow high-pressure steam to get to 'the low-
pressure cylinder, and at the same time valve 12 moves to allow ex-
haust steam from the high-pressure cylinder to go directly into the
exhaust pipe. The passage from the high-pressure exhaust to the
low-pressure steam chest is closed at the same time.
If the engine should thump when compound, but run smoothly
when simple, the valve 14 is probably not seating properly and
should be inspected and ground if need be.
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The roller at the end of cut-oflF lever 60, Fig. 56, should follow
the shoe connected to cut-off pedal 91. The spring attached to lever
60 should be in tension.
Water Pumps. The connection between the discharge pipe of
pumps 22 and 23, Fig. 62, and the water regulator 25, contains a
small strainer which should be cleaned occasionally by disconnecting
the pipe 35 from the regulator. The function of the spring plunger
17 is to cushion the strokes of the pumps.
The ball check valves of the water pump should lift j^ inch.
To reseat these valves, remove the bronze balls, insert a steel ball
of the same size, and tap once or twice to reshape the seat.
Condenser Pumps and Air Pumps. The condenser pump 39,
Fig. 53, has mushroom check valves, which should be kept reason-
ably tight.
The air pump, like the condenser pump, runs all the time, but
the suction check valve is normally held o|)en by lever 56, Fig. 56.
When air pressure is retjuired, press pedal 94, Fig. 57, which operates
lever 56 to release the suction check as long as 94 is down.
The needle and outlet air valves are removed for cleaning by
slackening bolt 54. The needle valve is protected from dust by the
wire screen 55, Fig. 56.
Throttle Valve. The throtde valve is shown in Fig. 59 closed
but not seated steam tight. By withdrawing the portion 180 from
the bushing 173 the valve is opened. By turning the stem so that
the shoulder 181 seats against 173 the valve is closed steam tight.
With this construction the seat is not scoured by the steam and,
therefore, never leaks when closed. The stem has a steep-pitch
screw whereby it is advanced or >^athdrawn in the nut or sleeve 176.
This sleeve carries the frame 163 rigidly secured thereon, and the
frame, by its position, limits the wide-open position of the lever 177.
To adjust the throtde, the frame 1()3 and sleeve 176 (considered
as one piece) are turned by slackening 175 to such position that 177
does not quite touch the frame when the throttle is dosed. This
permits the maximum opening to be secured.
To grind the throtde, loosen the screw clamp on 163, and turn
163 to the right on 176 about a quarter of a turn. Tighten clamp
163, loosen 175, and move 177 to the right. This pushes the valve
Stem farther through 176, and the valve seats before the flange on
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 85
176 comes against its seat. Now turn 174 and 176 together, which
will rotate the valve against its seat By undoing 175 the stem can
be slipped down and pumice put on the valve seat to grind it. When
Fiff. 59. Throttle.
through grinding, clean the valve and slacken the stem back so that
176 will seat properiy when 175 is tightened up.
To Clean Pilot Light. If the flame is weak with valve F two
turns open, work valve F back and forth to loosen passible dirt.
If this is not sufficient the pilot light must be cleaned. To remove
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86 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
it, close valve D and see that the pilot flame is out. Unscrew union
on pipe MA, turn pilot light to the left and pull down; take apart,
noting identification marks on parts. Clean with small drill furnished
with tool-kit. After reassembling, blow out the dust through the
stuflBng-box at F, then replace the valve stem. In replacing cone
P see that the slotted part is underneath.
To Clean Vaporizer. The nozzle 0, Fig. 50, is cleaned by un-
screwing and poking out the dust on deposited carbon. Occasionally
run a drill through the orifices, using exactly the same size drill as
is marked on the nozzle. Do not ream the hole. If fire is still poor,
the vaporizer must be cleaned. Remove vaporizer door. Remove
the lower part by unscrewing the nut on pipe HA and take out the
vaporizer. Note position of end support and pipes for correct replace-
ment. Take out plug screws in the vaporizer and clean thoroughly
with large drill in tool-kit.
In replacing the screws and support see that copper gaskets
are under each. See that the end support pin enters support post
U. At the same time clean fuel strainer B and drain the water
from the water trap by unscrewing the plug in the bottom of
casting B.
Care of Flow Motor. If the flow motor is disturbed, e. g., to
regrind or replace the fuel valve 193, Fig. 48, care must be taken
not to disturb the adjustment. The fuel valve for the 20-H. P.
car diflFers from that for the 40-H. P. car, so the two must not be
mixed. ^
The fuel valve Is correctly adjusted when the valve is seated
Vit L fy inch before piston 191 reaches its end stop. This en-
sures the spring tension holding the fuel valve positively shut when
water* is not flowing through. To adjust this when the piston is
against its stop, first screw the stem 193 into 192 till the fuel valve
is against its seat. From this point screw it ^j inch more, or about
five turns, and clamp with nut 194.
The relief valve 197 is easily cleaned by slackening the adjacent
union.
If leakage is noted at 125, tighten the stuffing-box or repack.
Do not tighten hard or it will retard the movement of the piston.
Care of Thermostat and Pyrometer. Of the two thermostat
stuffing-boxes, Fig. 49, 212 is packed with water packing, and 213
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 87
with asbestos packing. They should not be screwed tighter than is
necessary to prevent leakage when well packed.
To adjust the thermostat remove cap 119, and pull out stem
201. Adjust the nuts 202 up to raise the temperature, and down
to reduce the temperature. The temperature should average 390
degrees centigrade; one complete turn of nuts 202 will change the
temperature about sixty degrees. If the pyrometer or temperature
indicator is known to be fairly accurate a thermometer is not neces-
sary, but the car must be run long enough to get a constant tempera-
ture. The temperature cannot be accurately set when the car is
standing.
The principle of the pyrometer is similar to that of the ther-
mostat 219 is the expanding element, and 218 a non-expanding
stem which communicates the movement of- the lower end of 219
to the indicator above. Occasionally the pyrometer should be
checked by putting a thermometer into the hole 199 and running
the car till the temperature becomes constant If correction is
required, it is made on the dial.
Water Regulator. In Fig. 60, 37 is the steam connection, and
36 the gauge connection. The by-pass valve 141 is opened by lever
140 when the steam pressure is sufficient to compress the spring.
Water then goes through the regulator and out at 34 instead of going
to the generator.
To adjust the by-passing pressure, turn the worm 38 to the left
to increase the pressure, and to the right to decrease it. The water
should by-pass at 550 pounds steam pressure.
To remove the diaphragm, take out the regulator by blowing
off the steam pressure and disconnecting at 34, 36, 37, and 145.
Be careful not to lose valve 141. Turn worm 38 to the right till
spring tension is entirely relieved, before removing screws from cover.
Count the turns given to worm 38. Mark the cover 133 and plate
97 for correct replacement, also see that 97 is replaced with its con-
cave side next to diaphragm.
When reassembling, tighten the cover screws evenly, a little at
a time, several times around. Turn 38 to the left about two-thirds
the number of turns given it on disassembling. Put valve 141 in
position and reconnect the regulator except at 34. Open blow-off
valve 111 and oil valve 118, Fig. 51, and pump oil around the dia-
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88
STEAM AUTOMOBILES
Fife. 60. Water Regulator.
RENEW OIL IN ENGIt
AND REAR AXLE C>
ONE THOUSA^
Fig. 61. Lubrication System.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 89
phragm from the cylinder under oiler 108, Fig. 57, till the oil runs
from 111. Close valves 111 and 118.
Run the engine free to bring up steam pressure. If water dis-
charges at 34 with less than 550 pounds, turn worm 38 to the left
a turn at a time till the by-pass opens at 550 pounds. If water leaks
slowly from 34 with lower steam pressure, valve 141 must be reground
with fine pumice.
Rear Axle. The rear axle is ball bearing and is lubricated
either with steam cylinder oil or with heavy gear case oil. About
e\'ery thousand miles unscrew the bottom plug in the axle case
and see whether the oil comes out, and whether the oil is clean.
If so, fill the casing through the plug on the side near the bottom until
it runs out from side plug. Occasionally wash out the casing with
kerosene and fill with new oil.
The rear wheels are removed by slackening two clamp bolts,
one above and one below at each end of the axle. The wheel shaft
and bearing may then be drawn from the casing. To remove the
wheel from the shaft, unscrew hub cap and lock nuts.
Brakes. Both foot and hand brakes act on the rear wheel
drums and are compensated by steel cables. Adjustments are made
by the turn buckles at the back ends of the brake shoes.
Condenser. Ordinarily steam does not escape into thie air from the
condenser, but there is a relief valve in the top which opens under inter-
nal pressure when the condenser has more steam than it can take care of.
To clean the condenser, remove the exhaust chamber or top
header and the bottom header by undoing the nuts on the through
bolts, thereby leaving the tubes exposed for cleaning without remov-
ing the condenser from the car.
Lubrication. Following are the makers' instructions regard-
ing lubrication:
To insure a long life to the crank shaft and valve gearing it
is necessary that it be properly lubricated. Fig. 61, and at least every
five hundred miles the drain cock 68, Fig. 55, in the bottom of the
crank case, should be opened and any water that has collected there
drained out. This should be done when the engine is cold, as then the
water will settle and is easily drained out. At this time the operator
should make sure that there is suflScient oil in the crank case to lubri-
cate thoroughly and if there is not, put in enough.
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90 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
Once a month dean out the oil in the crank case and fill with
new. To do this, put a pint or so of kerosene in the crank case
Fig. 62. Engine-^Left-Side View, Wliite — 1907-1908.
and run the engine at moderate speed for five minutes and then
open the drain cock and let it all run out. Fill with two quarts of
clean oil.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 91
A good grade of motor grease should l>e used in the grease cups
and grease gun.
Care should be used to prevent dirt or grit mixing with either
oil or grease.
Examine all oil connections for clogging or leaks.
The lubrication of the engine is principally automatic, the oiler
being driven from the engine by a ratchet. Oilers are also provided
with hand plungers Nos. 108 and 109, Fig. 57, and should be given
a few strokes when starting.
Should the steam gauge needle vibrate, pump oil around the
pipe line. Open valves 118 and 111, Fig. 49 and Fig. 51, and pump
with cylinder hand oiler 108 until oil runs from valve 111. Always
close valve 118 when through.
These directions are for running under ordinary conditions.
WTien the conditions become unusual, as in heavy mud or long,
dusty trips, the operator must use his judgment about increasing
the lubrication of the exposed parts.
Flush the water tank daily and clean thoroughly once a week.
To Drain Water from Car. Raise the steam pressure and run
the engine long enough to warm it thoroughly.
Disconnect the unions at, the suction side of both water pumps
22 and 23, Fig. 47 and Fig. 53.
Disconnect pipe 127 at union 21, Fig. 47.
Disconnect pipe 130 at flow motor and thermostat and remove,
Fig. 47.
Disconnect the condenser pipe line at 40, Fig. 53, and open pet
cock at bottom of condenser.
Run the engine idle until the steam pressure is down to two or
three hundred pounds and give hand water pump 99 a few strokes, also
pump plenty of oil into the cylinders by means of lever 108, Fig. 57.
With the engine still running, open the blow-off valve which
connects to the top of the generator located back of the water tank
and reached through a hole in the running board shield by the tool
box, then open blow-off valve 111, Fig. 49 and Fig. 51.
If the car is to be laid up for a long time it is well to remove
balls from all checks.
To Drain by Air Pressure. The car can best be drained by means
of air if air pressure is available.
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I
02 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
Fig. 63. Kngiue— Right-Side View. Wliite— 1907-190S.
Open the drip cock at the bottom of the condenser and discon-
nect condenser Hne at union 40. Remove the plug from the lK)ttom
of the water tank. Blow air through condenser line by applying
at 40, Fig. 53.
Remove hose 18, Fig. T)."), ?!id apply air at union where LS con-
nects to pumps. Open blow-off valve 111 and water may all be
forced through.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 03
Fig. 64. Engine— Back-End View, White— 1907-1908.
To Get Good Results. Care should be taken that all parts are
well lubricated, the stuffing boxes packed, and all joints tight.
When the stuffing boxes begin to leak, it is advisable to take
them up at once before the steam has a chance to wear a groove
in the packing. WTien repacking remove all old packing then
replace with new and watch for leaks until it becomes thoroughly
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04 STEAM AUTOMOBILRS
settled. After once getting settled without the steam wearing a
passage through it, the box will not have to be repacked for a long
time. Don't keep valve stem stuffing boxes too tight as there is
only exhaust steam against them.
Use rOO-\V Mineral or D IVIobiloil.
Fig. 65. Crank of Engine, White— 1907-1908.
Keep the air pressure from 50 to 60 pounds — always above 50
pounds.
Do not crowd the car when starting. Give the engine time to
warm up.
Do not try to run 70 miles per hour.
Do not try to make fast time on bad roads.
Do not overload the car; it is designed for five or seven pas-
sengers only.
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STE.VM AUTOMOBILES 05
Fig. 66. Ohaasia^SldeView. White— 1907-1908.
Fig. 67. Chassis— Top View, White— 1907-1908.
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96 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
Always close the throttle before applying brakes or reversing
the engine.
Always make it a practice to disengage the engine from running
gear by means of lever 103 before leaving the driver's seat.
1907^ WHITE CARS VS. 1909-10 MODELS
The 1907 to 1908 White cars were substantially similar to the
present models as regards the essential features of the generator,
burner, flow motor, thermostat, and water regulator. They use
only one fuel (gasoline), but otherwise the instructions for firing up are
identical. Slight changes appear in the form of the flow motor and
the arrangement of the piping, but these in no way affect the manage-
ment and adjustment. The engine is shown complete in end and
side views in Fig. 62, Fig. 63, and Fig. 64. The burner nozzle of the
later cars has three orifices, whereas that of the earlier cars has but one.
The form of the air shutter on the mixing tube is also slightly changed.
The chief difference between the earlier and later models relates to
the engine itself, which in the former has the Stephenson link motion,
illustrated in Fig. 65. As this tj'pe of valve gear has already been
fully described no further explanation is necessary. The chassis
arrangement is shown in Fig. GO and Fig. 67.
, I
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THE GLIDE SCOUT
The Bartholomew Co^ Peoria, III.
THE GLIDE SPECIAL •'POBTT-FIVE** TOUBINO CAR
Th€ Bartholomew Co^ Peoria, III,
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GLOSSARY
♦INDEX TO NUMBERS AND LETTERS OF THE WHITE CARS
J9074908
1 High*pres8ure cylinder
2 Low-pressure cylinder
3 Fan shaft casing
4 Feed water heater stud
5 Feed water heater
6 Engine casing
7 Crank case
8 High-pressure piston stuffing-box
9 High-pressure valve stuffing-box
10 Low-pressure valve stuffing-box
11 Low-pressure piston «stuffing-box
12 Valve opening exhaust from high-pressure cylinder
13 Valve closing high-pressure exhaust from low-pressure steam chest
14 Valve admitting steam from high-pressure to low-pressure steam chest
15 Engine girt
16 Engine sprocket
17 Compression chamber
18 Suction from tank
19 Discharge pipe from pump to feed water heater
20 Unions in water connections
21 Grease cup
22 Upper power pump
23 Lower power pump
24 Power pump frame
25 Water regulator
26 Pump lever pin
27 Pump lever
28 Pump block
29 Pump plunger
30 Screws attaching pump frame to engine
31 Power pump lock nuts
32 Power pump stuffing-boxes
33 Upper power pump suction pipe
34 Water regulator by-pass pipe
35 Discharge pipe of lower power pump
36 Steam gauge and oil connection of water regulator
37 Steam connection of water regulator
38 Water regulator adjusting worm
*To enable the student to pick out and identify the puts of the White cars, the«
are Usted in full with reference numbers corresponding to the ilHistratioos.
lOT
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98 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
39 Condenser pump
40 Condenser pump suctioa end.
41 Condenser pump discharge end
42 Fan shaft sprocket
43 l^an shaft casing support
44 Simpling valve rocking lever
45 Simpling valve rocking lever shaft
46 Simpling valve rocking lever (spring side)
47 Simpling valve lever spring
48 Simpling valve lever connecting rod
49 Simpling valve bell crank
50 Main steam connection to high pressure steam chest
51 Engine air pump discharge connections
52 Cylinder oiler connection
53 Engine ^ pump yoke
54 Engine air pump yoke bolt
55 Engine air pump strainer
56 Air pump regulating lever
57 Air regulating lever bell crank
58 Air pump suction check chamber
59 Bell crank connecting to reverse arm
60 ' Reverse arm
61 'Connecting rod reverse arm to bell crank
62 Simpling valve cap
63 Discharge from feed water heater to flow motor
64 Engine universal joint
65 Bolts holding universal joint to crank shaft
66 Feed water strainer casting
67 Engine air pump
68 Plug for draining crank case
69 Fan shaft pulley
70 Crank case oiler connection
71 Feed water heater drip to condenser
72 Upper power pump suction check casting
73 Valve stem bearings
74 Link yoke
75 Crosshead
76 Crosshead pins
77 Connecting rod
78 Connecting rod cap
79 Valve links
. 80 Eccentric rods
81 Eccentric rod cap
82 Air and condenser pump eccehtric rod
83 Water pump eccentric rod
84 Counterbalance low pressure
85 Counterbalance high pressure
, 86 Main hearing
87 Main t-u*ust bearing
108
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STEAM AUTOMOBn.ES 99
88
'Condenser
89
Condenser overflow
90
Exhaust pipe
91
Fan bracket
92
Engine
93
Pedal operating simpling valve
94
Pedal operating air pump valve
95
Pedal operating foot brake
96
Water tank
97
Water regulator washer
98
Generator
99
Hand water pump
100
Pipe from 63 to thermostat
101
Throttle wheel
102
Steering wheel
103
Emergency gear lever
104
Reverse lever
105
Brake lever
106
Brake cables
107
Brakes
108
Cylinder oiler
109
Crank case oiler
110
Gear case
111
Blow-off valve
112
Driving shaft
113
Emergency gear rod
114
Universal joint (rear)
115
Air line check valve
116
Fan shaft chain idler
117
Universal joint (front)
118
Oil valve to water regulator
119
Thermostat valve stem cap
120
Flow motor
121
By-pass pipe to tank
122
Thermostat casting
123
Flow motor inlet
124
Flow motor outlet
125
Stuffing-box
126
Upper blow-off valve
127
Pipe to generator
128
Generator inlet
129
Discharge to engine
130
Pipe from thermostat to motor discharge
131
Connection to feed water heater
132
Main casting
133
Water regulator cover
134
E^aphragms
135
Plug
136
Diaphragm shifting pad
109.
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100 STEAM AUTOMOBILEvS
137
Plunger
138
Spring
139
Lock nut for plunger adjustment
140
Lever
141
Valve
142
Spring adiusting nut
143
Spring adjusting pad
144
Valve seat
145
Connection to pump discharge
146
Pinion driving shaft
147
Emergency gear shaft
148
Driving spur gear
149
Spur gear
150
Internal spur gear 149
151
External spur gear 149
152
Large spur gear on emergency shaft
153
Small spur gear on emergency shaft
154
Driving pinion
155
Pinion shaft rear bearing
156
Rear axle bearing
157
Pinion shaft front bearing
158
OUcup
159
Roller bearing
160
Shifting lever groove
161
Shifting lever groove
162
Exhaust inlet
163
Throttle bracket
164
Fan
165
Fan pulley
166
Connection to condenser pump
167
Drip cock
168
Top of condenser
169
Bottom of condenser
170
Condenser side frame
171
Hood support bracket
172
Throttle casting
173
Nickel seat
174
Throttle stem
175
Union nut
176
Throttle sleeve
177
Throttle lever
178
Stuffing-box nut
179
Stuffing-box i^and
180
Projection on valve stem
181
Valve seat
182
Connection to engine
183
Connection to generator
184
Passage through throttle aeat
185
Brake drum
tio
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 101
186 Foot brake band
187 Emergency brake band
188 Foot brake spring
189 Foot brake turn buckle
190 Emergency brake turn buckle
191 Piston
192 Piston rod
193 Valve stem
194 Valve stem lock nut
195 Groove
1 96 Plug for draining
197 By-pass valve
198 Flow motor piston spring
199 Thermostat casting
200 Water inlet
201 Valve stem
202 Valve stem adjusting nut
203 Valve stem seat
204 Water outlet
205 Bell crank
206 Bell crank spring
207 Element of thermostat
208 Union nut holding pyrometer in thermostat casting
209 Vaporizer pressure gauge
210 Steam-pressure gauge '
21 1 Air-pressure gauge
212 Valve stem stuffing-box
213 Valve end thermostat element stuffing-box
214 Pjrrometer end thermostat element stuffing-box
215 Thread securing thermostat element in casting
216 Steam entrance to thermostat casting
217 Steam outlets from thermostat casting
218 Outside element of pyrometer
219 Inside element of pyrometer
220 Metal cap extension on inside element
A Supply pipe from fuel tank
AA Hand air pump
AB Main fuel shut-off valve
AC Flow motor stuffing-box
AD Pipe from power air pump
B Fuel strainer casting
C Fuel strainer plug
CA to CD Graduation valve stem
CB Plug
D Main sub-burner valve
E Sub-burner flush valve
F Sub-burner adjusting valve
G Warming up valve
H Pipe to main burner valve
111
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102 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
HA Pipe connecting valve G with vaporizer N
I Pipe to warming up valve
J Main burner valve
K Fuel pipe to flow motor
L Flow motor fuel valve
M Pipe from flow motor fuel valve to vaporizer
MA Sub-burner supply pipe.
N Vaporizer
NA Vaporizer discharge pipe
Vaporizer nozzle
P Sub-burner cap
Q Burner
R Burner induction tube
S Induction tube shutter
T Pipe to vaporizer gauge
U Vaporizer support post
V Sub-burner casing
W Sub-burner casing door
X Fuel tenk
Y Fuel tank filler cap
Z Fuel tank gauge
I909-J9J0
1 High-pressure cylinder
2 Low-pressure cylinder
3 Valve gear inspection plate
4 Water pump inspection plate
5 Feed water heater
6 Engine casing
7 Crank case inspection plate
8 High-pressure piston stufling-box
9 High-pressure valve stufling-box
10 Low-pressure valve stuffing-box
1 1 Low-pressure piston stuffing-box
12 Intercepting valve (simpling valve mechanism)
13 Relief cocks
14 Pass-over valve (simpling valve mechanism)
15 Air and condenser pump inspection plate
16 Fan pulley
17 Compression chamber
18 Suction from tank
1& Discharge from pumps to flow motor
20 Unions in water connections
21 Union connecting pipe 127 to hand water pump 99
22 Upper power pump
23 Lower power pump
24 Power pump frame
112
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 103
25 Water regulator
26 Pump block pin
27 Pump lever
28 Pump block
29 Water pump plunger
30 Screws attaching pump frame to engine
31 Power pump lock nuts
32 Power pump stuffing-boxes
33 Upper power pump suction pipe
34 Water regular by-pass pipe
35 Discharge pipe of lower power pump
36 Steam gauge and oil connection
37 Steam connection of water regulator
38 Water regulator adjusting worm
39 Condenser pumj>
40 Condenser pump suction end
41 Condenser pump discharge end
42 Pyrometer
43 Relief cock lever
44 Simpling valve lever
45 Emergency tank air valve ^
46 Steering gear casing
47 Lever operating automatic oiler
48 Piston head
49 Piston rings
50 Steam connection to high pressure steam chest
51 Engine air pump discharge connection
52 Cylinder ofler connection
53 Exhaust inlet to feed water deater
54 Exhaust outlet from feed water heater to condenser
55 Engine air pump strainer
56 Air pump regulating lever
57 Crank case stuffing-boxes
58 Valve crosshead
59 Piston rod
60 Reverse arm
61 Valve gearing levers
62 Crank-shaft
63 Crank-shaft lock ring
64 Universal joint, engine end driving shaft
65 Bolt holding universal joint to crank shaft
66 Crank-shaft lock washer
67 Engine air pump
68 Cook for draining crank case
69 Ball separator rings
70 Crank case oiler connection
71 Valve slides
72 Valve slide rollers
73 Valve stem
118
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104 STEAM AUTOMOBILES
74 Low pressure piston valve
75 Piston crosshead
76 Crosshead pin
77 Connecting rod
78 Valve slide frame
79 Air pump cable guide
80 Engine support
81 Screws holding valve slide frame in engine frame
82 Cut-off pedal adjusting pin
83 Water line from flow motor to feed water heater
84 Counterbalance
85 Water drain from feed water heater
86 Main bearing
87 Water tank strainer casting
88 . Condenser
*89 Condenser overflow
90 Condenser exhaust pipe
91 Pedal regulating cut-off
92 Engine
93 Pedal operating simpling valve
94 Pedal operating air pump valve
95 Pedal operating foot brake
96 Water tank
97 Water regulator washer
98 Generator
99 Hand water pump
100 Pipe from 19 to thennostat
101 Throttle wheel
102 Steering wheel
103 Emergency gear lever
104 Reverse lever
105 Brake lever
106 Brake cables
107 Brakes
108 Cylinder oiler pump
109 Crank cai^ oiler pump
110 Gear case
111 Blow-off valve
112 Driving shaft
113 Emergency gear rod
114 Universal joint (axle end of driving shaft)
115 Air line check valve
116 Rear axle inspection plate
117 Main driving gear
118 Oil valve to water regulator
119 Thermostat valve stem cap
120 Flow motor
121 By-pass pipe to tank
122 Thermostat casting
114
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 105
123 Flow motor inlet from pumps
124 Flow motor outlet
125 Flow motor stufl^g-box
126 Suction for hand water pump
127 Pipe to generator
128 Generator inlet
129 Discharge to engine
130 Pipe from thermostat to flow motor discharge
131 Feed water heater drain inlet
132 Water regulator main casting
133 Water regulator cover
134 Diaphragms
135 Plug
136 Diaphragm shifting pad
137 Plunger
138 Spring
139 Lock nut for plunger adjustment
140 Lever
141 Valve
142 Spring adjusting nut
143 Spring adjusting pad
144 Valve seat
145 Connection to pump discharge
146 Pinion driving shaft
147 Emergency gear shaft
148 Sliding spur gear on pinion shaft
149 Spur gear
150 Internal spur gear (149)
151 External spur gear (149)
152 Large spur gear on emergency shaft
153 Small spur gear on emergency shaft
154 Driving pinion
155 Pinion shaft rear bearing
156 Rear axle bearing
157 Pinion shaft front bearing
158 Oil cup
159 Roller bearing
160 Shifting lever groove
161 Shifting lever groove
162 Exhaust inlet
163 Flow motor inlet from thermostat
164 Fan
165 Differential gear casing
166 Connection to condenser pump
167 Air and condenser pump plunger
168 Top of condenser
169 Bottom of condenser
170 Condenser side frame
171 Rear axle clamp bolt
115
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106 SrEAM AUTOMOBILES
172 Throttle casting
173 Nickel seat
174 Throttle stem
175 Union nut
176 Throttle sleeve
177 Throttle lever
178 Stuffing-box nut
179 Stuffing-box gland
180 Projection on valve stem
181 Valve stem seat
182 Connection to engine
183 Connection to generator
184 Passage through throttle seat
185 Brake drum
186 Foot brake band
187 Emergency brake band
188 Foot brake spring
189 Foot brake turn buckle
190 Hand brake turn buckle
191 Flow motor piston
192 Piston rod
193 Valve stem
194 Valve stem lock nut
195 Grade water groove
196 High pressure piston valve
197 By-pass valve
198 Flow motor piston spring
199 Thermometer well
200 Water inlet of thermosUt
201 Thermostat valve stem
202 Valve stem adjusting nut
203 Valve stem seat
204 Water outlet
205 Bell crank
206 Bell crank spring
207 Element of thermostat
208 Union nut holding pyrometer in thermostat casting
209 Air and vaporizer pressure gauge
210 Steam pressure gauge
21 1 Steam line to thermostat
21 2 Valve stem stuffing box
213 Thermostat element stuffing-box
214 Steam line from thermostat
215 Thread securing thermostat element in casting
216 Steam entrance to thermostat casting
217 Steam outlet from thermostat casting
218 Inside element of pyrometer
219 Outside element of pyrometer
220 Metal cap extension on inside element
116
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES 107
A Supply pipe from fuel tank
AA Hand air pump
AB Main fuel shut-off valve
AB2 Emergency fuel tank shut-off valve
AC Flow. motor stuflKng-box
AD Pipe from power air pump
B Fuel strainer casting ^^
C Fuel strainer plug C^
CA to CD Graded fuel valve stem T
CB Flow to motor fuel valve plug :>
D Main sub-burner valve
E Tee connecting tank X2 into fuel line A
F Sub-burner adjusting valve
G Warming up valve "^
H Pipe to main burner valve
HA Pipe connecting valve G with vaporizer X
I Pipe to warming up valve '\
J Main burner valve *
K Fuel pipe to flow motor *w
L Flow motor fuel valve
M Pipe from flow motor fuel valve to vaporiKor
MA Sub-burner supply pipe s
N Vaporizer
NA Vaporizer discharge pipe
O Vaporizer nozzle
P Sub-burner cap
Q Burner
R Burner induction tube
S Induction tube shutter
T Pipe to vaporizer gauge
U Vaporizer support post
V Sub-burner casing
W Sub-burner casing door *
X Fuel tank
X2 Emergency fuel tank
Y Fuel tank cap
Y2 Emergency fuel tank cap
Z Fuel tank trycocks
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PART I
INTRODUCTION
Much wonderment is frequently expressed at the comparatively
slow development of the motor-driven vehicle for commercial usage
in this country, and this is increased when it becomes known that
the actual advent of the business automobile took place not very
long after that of its rival — the pleasure car — which has since
monopolized the center of the stage. But the underlying reasons
are neither numerous nor complex. Reliability is naturally the
chief essential in commercial service and this was possessed in no great
degree by tfie early models of the present day commercial vehicles
— ^probaby less so than was the case with the pleasure car. Huge
sums of money are tied up in horse-drawn equipment and the aver-
age business man naturally hesitates to change — ^in fact, it is but a
repetition of the history of the horse and the trolley car. It is only
a question of a few years when the power wagon will have displaced
its predecessor quite as generally as has electric traction the horse
car in street-railway service.
It is important to know the reasons for the revolution that is now
in active progress, as well as to become familiar with the prevailing
practice in America and abroad, in the construction, operation, and
maintenance of that large and varied class of automobiles which is
employed exclusively for bu'siness purpases. Regardless of type,
class, or method of propulsion these are commonly referred to as
commercial vehicles. This classification embraces not alone motor
delivery wagons and trucks for the transportation of merchandise,
but likewise taxicabs, omnibuses, sight-seeing vehicles, motor road
trains, farm tractors, emergency repair or tower wagons for street-
railway service, and also special municipal service vehicles — am-
bulances, patrol wagons, fire engines, street sprinkling and garbage
removal wagons and the like. In fact, it may be said that any auto-
Copyright, mOt hy ilfiMrKOfi School of Corr$9pond9nC9*
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mobile not devoted to pleasure b a commercial vehicle, and as
was naturally expected, the first commercial vehicles were merely
pleasure cars transformed to suit the needs of the occasion. To a
certain extent, this still continues to be the case.
Standard Design. Whedier it be electric-, steam-, or gasoline-
driven, the general design of tfie motive power as well as that of
its transmission to the driving wheek b practically the same in the
commercial vehicle as it b in die pleasure car. All of die component
parts of the latter — bearings, frames, axles, steering gear, and com-
pensating mechanbm — have their counterparts in every industrial
vehicle. In other words, the chassis in either case b composed of
similar members. For the sake of brevity in the present treatise,
it is assumed at the start that the reader has become familiar with
motor-car engineering in so far as it relates to pleasure-car construc-
tion; that he understands from previous study and actual handling
of machines, the theory of the operation of the internal combustion
engine; that he is conversant with the dbtinguishing characteristics
of the several types of en^nes as well as their advantages and
limitations; and that he is acquainted with the types of transmission
systems ordinarily employed on pleasure cars — in brief, that he
understands any reference to component parts, their functions and
their relation to one another, without the necessity of explana-
tion.
In common with the pleasure car, the commercial vehicle b
capable of traveling at various speeds wherever road conditions
will permit it to go. . Both comprise in a single entity, a wheeled
vehicle suitable for transportation purposes, fitted with an inde-
pendent, self-contained power-plant. To this extent, they both
present the same engineering problems in so far as they relate to the
construction of the motor, its control, and the transmission of its
power to the road wheels, the design of the running gear, and the
control of the vehicle itself. Divergence in practice b encountered
with the consideration of the purposes for which each vehicle is
designed. The pleasure car is not intended to be a particulariy
efficient vehicle. Its carrying capacity bears but a comparatively
insignificant ratio to its total weight, and the car is not usually designed
to work under the same severe and continued conditions of service
which are the first requirement of the commercial vehicle. It must
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be capable of high speed with its maximum load of passengers and
must combine reliability with endurance to a sufficient extent to meet
the demands of its owner on pleasure bent. A little consideration
of these factors may throw some light on the difficulty which was
encountered in previous years in convincing the enthusiastic motorist
that automobiles would be a paying investment in his business.
Requirements in Commercial Field. Reliability is naturally
the prime essential in the business vehicle; then come efficiency,
economy, and endurance. The combination of these three qualities
make it so superior to horse traction as to admit of no comparison
in the results obtainable. The accomplishment of the first-named
has naturally been the outcome of years of experience in the develop-
ment of the pleasure car and the application to the commercial vehicle,
of the lessons thus learned. Until this was achieved, it was naturally
difficult for the motor vehicle to compete with its time-tried, though
slow and inefficient, predecessor. Efficiency means the maximum
weight of the useful load transported, in proportion to the weight
of the vehicle itself; this element also involves economy, as the
vehicle and its load must be moved at a speed greater than is
possible with horses. To meet these difficult requirements, it is
necessary, first, to provide a self-propelled vehicle in which the
nicest possible proportion of vehicle weight to maximum useful
load capacity is realized; second, to employ a motor of sufficient
power and suitable speed reduction through its transmission to the
road wheels that will enable the machine to ascend the steepest
grades with full load, and yet not overburden the machine with
superfluous weight or power for safe and reasonable spef^s on the
level; and third, to proportion every part so as to insure the longest
life to the vehicle, and the greatest economy in its use. It is not the
province of the present treatise to discuss these problems and their
solution from die engineer's viewpoint, but to consider the machmes
as they are at present built in this country for the benefit of the user.
This term is intended to apply to the driver and the traffic depart-
ment head, quite as much as the merchant who looks upon the
adoption of the power wagon solely in the light of an investment.
The keynote to the successful commercial vehicle is reliability
and economy in operation. It must compete with all other forms
of transportation— carrying merchandise or passengers quicker and
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cheaper per ton mile or per passenger mile than the horse-drawn
vehicle, and either cheaper or quicker, or with greater convenience
in many cases than the railroads, this phase of the problem naturally
only involving short hauls. When it is borne in mind how easily
anything in the form of a pleasure automobile has been marketed
during the past five to eight years, it will be apparent why manu-
facturers generally were loth to attempt the sojution of the commercial
vehicle problem. To put it bluntly, "There was no money in it,"
and the task was a thankless one. Not that the possibilities were
unthought of. The pioneer automobile builders realized the great
promise of the future for the motor delivery wagon, truck, and bus,
quite as fully at the outset, as their confreres do today. In fact,
in this country the first general use of the electric vehicle — the cab —
was for purely commercial purposes. Not a few electric and steam
vehicles were built for business purposes during the period from
1897 to 1902 — a time which the modem motorist regards as the
dark ages. There were also a small number of gasoline-driven
commercial cars constructed during the period in question, and
some of them have been rendering service steadily ever since. It is
needless to add that they represent a bright exception, as the in-
ternal-combustion engine for vehicle use was then in the primary
stages of its development and the patience required to perfect it
called for more persistent effort than many were capable of.
Imperfect Service Brings Reaction. As is inevitable when any-
thing is placed on the market in a crude state, a reiaction will follow
its adoption as soon as its shortcomings make themselves apparent.
Inventors and manufacturer's naturally could not afford to perfect
the commercial machine at their own expense. As was the case
with the pleasure vehicle, the buyer had to bear the burden of ex-
perimental expense. Early commercial vehicles, as a consequence,
fell shorter of materializing their purchasers' expectations than did
the pleasure cars, for the former were intended to show a definite
return on the credit side of the balance sheet, while in the latter
case, expense was only a thing to be reckoned with when it exceeded
the purse of the car's owner. Over-light construction was the chief
structural defect of the first steam vehicles in this country, while it
did not take long to demonstrate that steam, in the manner then em-
ployed, was not the long-sought power for conunercial use. As a
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result, the fire-tube boiler type of steam car disappeared almost
completely. Excessive weight in proportion to load capacity, marked
inefficiency and excessive depreciation of the batteries, these were
some of the discouraging features encountered in the attempt to
electricity through' the medium of the storage battery. The almost
utilize entire absence of the factor of reliability in service settled the
score of the gasoline-driven machine. Add to the above the fact
that repairs and replacements were an unduly large proportion of
the expense in every case, and that the vehicles were frequentiy out
of service, and it will be easy to understand why merchants generally
did not enthuse over the conmiercial motor vehicle.
Reliable Qasoline Car Solves Difficulty. It was really not until
the gasoline-driven pleasure car had arrived at a point where it could
be depended upon to give satisfaction in the hands of the ordinary
driver, that interest in its conmiercial possibilities reawakened.
Attempts to utilize the electric vehicle had been continued in the
interim, and, in the aggregate, quite a number of these machines
were turned out, many of them still being in active service. But
the number of manufacturers devoting attention to this branch was
very small, and it has only been in comparatively recent years that
any decided progress has been made. Strange as it may seem,
successful builders of gasoline pleasiure cars have not been respon-
sible, as a whole, for the development of the commercial vehicle.
\Vhen attention was again turned to this field after the period of in-
action, a new group of manufacturers came into existence. Then,
with the lessening need of experimental work on the pleasure car,
builders of the latter again took up the conmiercial side seriously,
so that it is safe to say that today, there is scarcely an automobile
manufacturer in the country that is not either actually producing
commercial vehicles or contemplates doing so in the immediate
future.
Generally speaking, this second stage in the development of
the motor-driven industrial vehicle, which is now in full swing, had
its inception about 1905. Since then, the number of manufacturers
devoting attention to the gasoline type has increased so rapidly that
the makers of electric and steam cars combined, form but an insig-
nificant fraction of the total. In fact, there is but one American
manufacturer doing any considerable business in steam-powered
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6 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
commercial vehicles. In England, the latter have met with con-
siderable success, particularly for heavy haulage purposes, but there
has been little attempt made to introduce them here and the few that
have actually been tried have been unsuccessful. Electric vehicles
still hold their own and are being produced in larger numbers than
ever, but there has been no increase in the number of makers turning
them out There are now possibly a dozen, all told, building electric
delivery wagons and trucks, and the prospect of any further increase
in this direction appears remote. As compared with this showing
of the present output of the two types that originally monopolized
the commercial field to a very large extent, there are now half a hun-
dred or more well-established manufacturers of gasoline conmiercial
vehicles and additions to the ranks are frequent.
Classification. In order to make the subject as clear as possible,
and facilitate reference on the part of the reader, industrial motor
vehicles as a whole have been classified, first, by their motive power,
and second, by the uses for which they are intended. Thus there
are, in the order of their relative importance today:
Gaaoline-Miriven vehicles
Motive Power I ^^^^^"^ ^^^*^^^ ,
Gas-electric vehicles
Steam vehicles
Delivery wagons
Trucks, vansi and similar freight carriers
Passenger vehicles — stages, buses, taxicabs, sight-
seeing cars, etc.
TvTv* f V h* 1 / ^^""C^P*^ vehicles — patrol wagons, ambulances, fire
ypes o e ic es ^ apparatus, garbage removal wagons, street
sprinklers, etc.
Special types — railway tower wagons, emergency re-
pair wagons, vacuum cleaning outfits, farm
tractors, road trains, etc.
This classification has been made advisedly, for though kerosene
and alcohol are being experimented with as fueb for the mtemal
combustion engine, and particularly for conunercial purposes, by
far the great majority of types marketed at present are driven by
gasoline fuel.
Each of the foregoing principal divisions is susceptible of further
subdivision, but this is neither necessary nor desirable. Commer-
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cial motor vehicles are now built for almost every conceivable pmpose
involving the haulage of freight or the transportation of passengers,
including many special uses, such as hauling huge reels of telephone
cable and drawing the cable through the underground conduits,
transporting safes and pianos and hoisting them, delivering coal
with special dumping wagons, and the Uke. They differ only in the
special equipment with which they are provided for the service in
view and as their construction otherwise is the same, it would only
lead to confusion to attempt to consider them separately.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Though no longer a predominant feature of th^ commercial
vehicle situation in this country, as the electric machine was the first
type to score any considerable success in the commercial field, it is
appropriate that it should be taken up first. It has been freely pre-
dicted in the past that the electric vehicle would disappear entirely
with the development of the gasoline-driven machine, and there are
still those who are of the same opinion today. In view of the startling
evolution of the automobile industry as a whole in the past few years,
it would be folly to attempt to predict what the ensuing decade may
bring forth, but it seems safe to say that the electric will continue
to fill the r6le in which it has proven so successful, for some time to
come. It has a field all its own, and, up to the present, other types
have not been able to invade the field to any extent, this being quite
as true of the pleasure car as of its conmiercial confrere.
Advantages* One of its chief advantages from the purely com-
mercial point of view, is its great simplicity, which to a very large
extent solves the labor question that has proved such a deterrent to
, the adoption of the gasoline vehicle for conmiercial service. As the
duties of the driver of an electric vehicle do not extend beyond its
actual starting, stopping, and guidance while under way, anyone
who has been accustomed to the use of horses can master its operation
in the course of a few hours. This also appears to be equally true
of men who have never driven any type of vehicle previous to their
taking the wheel or steering tiller of an electric. Apart from the actual
mechanical control of the vehicle, the driver's only other care is to
keep informed as to the state of charge of the battery by watching
the voltmeter, in order to prevent running the car with the batteries
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
in an exhausted condition, as this is very detrimental to their con-
tinued usefuhiess. However, as most commercial vehicle batteries
are chained every twenty-four hours and the car's run is planned to
lie within its traveling radius on a single charge, with a factor of safety
allowed in addition, this is not a very onerous duty. The further
requirement of noting the current consumption on starting and
running, as indicated by the ammeter, in order that any defect in
the operation of the running gear of the car may be detected and
remedied, is abo a very simple one, so that an unskilled driver is
available at a correspondingly lower charge for labor cost in the
operation of the vehicle.
Power Efficiency. The amount of power available on a single
charge of the batteries without unduly increasing the weight is so
limited, that in the design of -the electric great care must be taken
to eliminate friction and other sources of power loss at every possible
point. Thb is further necessitated by the gradually decreasing
eflBciency of the batteries with age. Starting at 80 per cent eflBciency
when new, this may rapidly drop to 50 per cent or below, unless the
batteries are properly maintained, and this is likewise true of the
transmission efficiency of the running gear of the vehicle, so that
while unskilled labor may be employed for the operation of the
vehicles, this is not the case where their maintenance is concerned.
Power losses due to the tires are abo an important factor, and as
the pneumatic can very seldom be considered for commercial service,
the same degree of efficiency b not obtainable from the business
electric wagon as from the pleasure type employing the same motive
power. Road conditions must abo be considered, despite the fact
that electrics are employed almost exclusively for city or near by
suburban service, as mud, snow, and ice in winter, and poor pave-
ments at any time, cause an increase in the current consumption.
It is safe to say that if improvements in design had not been
effected as the result of experience, the electric vehicle would now
have been practically eliminated as a factor of importance in the
commercial vehicle situation, as the early types were extremely waste-
ful of power. One of the many reasons for thb was the employment
of two motors, which were at first considered necessary. It was
found that the substitution of a single unit of slightly less capacity
than the combined power of the pair previously employed was a
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long step in advance where power saving was concerned, and the
practice of using but one motor even on comparatively heavy vehicles
is now generally followed. This also served to cut down transmis-
sion losses, though it involved the use of a balance gear, or differ-
ential, to take the place of the independent drive to each rear wheel
that was in vogue when two motors were used. The abandonment
of a spur-gear drive in favor of chains was also a further improve-
ment in the same direction. This made possible the removal of the
motor from proximity with the driving wheels, to a point on the
chassis where its weight could be better supported by the springs,
thus effecting a step in advance on the score of maintenance as the
motive power was no longer subjected to the severe pounding.
BLBCTRIC DBLIVBRY WAQON
Whether considered from the point of view of design and con-
struction, or from that of operation, the electric delivery wagon is
without doubt the simplest vehicle in the commercial field. As
already mentioned, its operation may be mastered in a comparatively
short time, either by the ex-horse driver, or by a person who has
never had any experience in the control of a vehicle, so that the labor
cost — always an item of importance in this field — ^may be materially
reduced without fear of the equipment suffering in consequence.
* It will be noted under on "Electric Trucks," Page 22, that it is cus-
tomary with manufacturers of these vehicles to adopt a standard
form of design, which is employed throughout in every size listed by
the same maker, the only differences being those of dimension,
load capacity of the vehicle, and capacity of the battery to take care
of the increased weight.
This is likewise the case where electric delivery wagons are
concerned. For instance, all the Studebaker delivery wagons are
characterized by the same feature of design, except the one rated
at 500-pounds capacity which is intended for very light work. This
car is equipped with a single, high-speeii electric motor, placed for-
ward under the body and arranged to drive the rear wheels through
a countershaft and chains. All the others are equipped with two
motors which are placed near the rear wheels and drive the latter by
countershafts, roller chains, small sprockets on the ends of the
armature shafts and large ones bolted to the driving wheels.
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10 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
Package delivery wagons and express wagons of the electric
type have a useful load capacity rangmg from 500 to 2,000 pounds,
though very few of less than 1,000-pqunds capacity are now built
or employed. They are designed for maximum speeds of 10 to 15
miles an hour under favorable conditions on the level, and are fitted
with batteries permitting of a maximum traveling radius of 40 to
50 miles on a single charge. The 40-mile run is standard and is
based on an average speed of 10 to 12 miles an hour, including stops,
as the necessity for frequently stopping and restarting the car in de-
livery service has an important bearing on the mileage of which the
car is capable on a single charge. The latter is naturally figured
on the maximum eflBciency of the car as a whole, so that in practice
this is seldom fully realized, due to the deterioration of the batteries
in service. Consequently, while there are numerous instances on
record of vehicles doing 40 miles a day or better, 25 to 30 miles will
more nearly represent an average figure.
Design. The design of many of the early electric vehicles fol-
lowed very closely the lines laid down and adhered to for so many
years by the wagon builder. That is, the entire vehicle was a unit.
Then, the practice of making the power-plant and nmning-gear, or
chassis, entirely independent of the body, which obtained in the
gasoline field, was followed and is representative of the usual electric
vehicle construction today. This permits of fitting any style of body
desired by the user. As a matter of fact, as soon as engineering
practice became fairly well standardized, as applied to the design
of the gasoline-driven car, that of the electric vehicle followed it more
or less closely, except as necessarily modified by the difference in
the motive power. Thus, it will be ^ noted that the electric has
progressed through the stages represented by the angle-iron frame,
armored wood frame, and modifications of the two as employed on
gasoline cars, to the now generally current type of pressed steel frame.
This has the advantage of being extremely strong for its weight.
It is composed of side and transverse members produced in hydraulic
presses direcdy from steel plates of about yV'^^ch thickness, these
members being riveted together and further reinforced by gussets
at the comers. On account of the height of the vehicle, the frames
are made perfectly rectangular and without either a drop or narrow-
ing forward.
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The types of suspension employed also show the same variations
as are to be fomid in the gasoline-driven cars, some of the smaller
electrics having full elliptic springs as ordinarily employed on wagons,
while intennediate and heavy vehicles have either straight semi-
elliptic springs front and rear, or a half-platform type of suspension
in the rear. A study of the Studebaker and General Vehicle types
of delivery wagons and trucks will show how closely they approach
to what is considered general practice in the automobile field as a
whole. The latest Lansden vehicles are distinguished by a novel
form of suspension employing groups of helical springs, and rep-
resent about the only departure of note.
Where the axles are concerned, the electric still bears traces of
its predecessor, the horse-drawn wagon, as these are usually straight
forgings of square section, though tubular axles are employed in
some of the lighter cars. The steering spindles on the front axles
and the wheel spindles on both front and rear follow conventional
practice, as ball or roller bearings are generally employed. Because
of the heavy loads carried and the fact that solid tires are used, the
entire running gear has to be planned on a very liberal scale. This
is likewise true of the springs. While it is desirable that the latter
afford as much protection to the mechanism as possible, sufficient
stability to carry the load is of more importance than flexibility, as
the comparatively slow speeds do not occasion either the rapid
oscillations or the violent shocks that are met with in the pleasure
car with its light load and high speed.
Motive Power. As already mentioned, the motive power of
the majority of smaller electric vehicles consists of a single motor,
and in some makes, such as the General Vehicle, this practice is
extended into quite heavy units with a corresponding increase in the
efficiency of the vehicle as a whole. In order to keep down the
weight as well as the space occupied, these motors are very small
for their power output and consequently have to be wound for high
rotative speeds. They are usually of the series type, of General
Electric or Westinghouse make, and are designed to carry heavy
overloads for short periods to enable the car to pull out of a bad place,
to start with full load on a heavy grade, or to meet similar emergen-
cies, the motor, under such conditions, delivering an amount of power
totally disproportionate to its size, and particularly to its normal
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12 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
rating. This brings up a question that has proved very puzzling to
the layman, and frequently to the engineer not familiar with elec-
trical practice. If at least 20 to 25 horse-power are necessary for the
average small gasoline car, how is it possible to run a delivery wagon
with a 2J-horse-power electric motor, and a truck of no mean pro-
portions with but 5 horse-power? The overrating of the amount
of power necessary in the first case, and the undervaluation of the
actual amount of power available in the second go a long way toward
explaining this. Though the gasoline car is equipped with a 25-
horse-power motor, it seldom uses more than 40 to 50 per cent of
what is available; in fact, assuming the vehicle to be in good condi-
tion throughout, it probably does not require more than 10 to 15 horse-
power to drive it on the level, at any speed up to 30 miles an hour.
The electric on the other hand, ha« a 2i-horse-power motor
which is really a 10-horse-power motor, or 5 horse-power at least,
and which may be 15 horse-power, when occasion demands it, as
many of these motors are capable of overloads up to 500 per cent of
their normal capacity. Furthermore, there is the extremely important
factor of speed and its complement, wind resistance. Speeds are so
slow in commercial vehicle practice that wind resistance is prac-
tically a negligible factor, even with the towering bodies of motor
vans which present a very large area, as this influence does not make
itself apparent much under speeds of 25 miles an hour. Discussions
which have taken place regarding this seemingly great discrepancy
in the motive-power equipment of the average electric and gasoline
car, recall those regarding the same feature of the pioneer electric
street cars as compared with their predecessors. Two, or three
horses at most, sufiiced to haul the cars up grades that some of the
first power-driven cars with 15-horse-power motors could not get over.
In any case, why should it take 15 horse-power to drive a car that
had formerly only required a team of horses to move it? Weight
and speed were naturally not taken into consideration, as the old
horse car was as light as a wagon and ran much easier, though the
general misconception prevailing as to just what a horse-power is
and what a horse is capable of were principally responsible. Care-
ful experiments carried out by an English engineer have proved con-
clusively that the average draft horse is capable of exerting the
equivalent of all the way from 4 to 13 horse-power for periods as long
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as five minutes at a time. Consequently, the light car with its two
horses really had available several times as much power, based on
the horse-power unit, as appeared to be present.
Motor Suspension. Since the employment of spur-gear drives
has become less general, the motor is usually suspended from the
frame by means of transverse members riveted to the side rails, and
is placed near or slightly forward of the center of the chassis, in
order to give the best distribution of weight This is an advantage
that is not obtainable when the motors are hung from the rear axle,
or too close to it. In view of the high speed at which the motors
run — 1,800 to 2,000 r. p. pi. or more — a reduction in two stages is
necessary to avoid the employment of excessively large sprockets.
The first step is from the motor to a countershaft by means of a single
silent chain of the Morse or Renold type, the motor being suspended
in such a manner that it may be moved a short distance one way or
the other to permit of adjusting this chain to the proper tension.
The large sprocket on the countershaft, which serves to cut down
the speed in the proportion of about 1 to 5, also embodies a differen-
tial or compensating gear of the usual bevel or spur type, thus making
it possible to employ a solid one-piece axle, instead of weakening
the latter by inserting the balance gear in it. This is an important
feature as the rear axle must bear 60 to 70 per cent of the total weight
of both car and load. From the countershaft, chains are run to each
pf the driving wheels. The relative positions of the countershaft
and rear axle are maintained by heavy adjustable radius rods, at-
tached forward to the outer ends of the countershaft, and at the rear
to the axle. These take the stress of the drive off the springs and
counteract the tendency of the chains to draw the rear axle toward
the countershaft under the pull of the motor.
Where two motors are employed, as in the Studebaker 2,000-
pound wagons, they are suspended side by side from the frame by
special swinging hangers with their armatures practically in line with
one another. But each motor is entirely independent of the other and
serves to drive one of the rear wheels to which it is directly connected
by means of a roller chain, passing over a small sprocket on the arma-
ture shaft of the motor forward and a large one on the hub of the
driving wheel at the rear, there being but a single step in the speed
reduction in this case. As there is no mechanical connection between
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the two motors, or between the two driven wheels, the latter are free
to rotate at different speeds when necessary and a compensating gear
is dispensed with altogether. This also gives the further advantage
of not losing traction entirely when one of the driving wheels turns
loosely on ice, mud or sand, as is the case with the differential, which
nullifies the driving effort applied to the opposite wheel when its
mate revolves freely. Chain drive as now employed is not only more
efficient, but less noisy and much easier to maintain and repair than
the spur-gear drive formerly in vogue, though the protection of the
chains by suitable cases to keep off mud and maintain lubrication
would be an improvement.
As the motors commonly employed are wound to take current
at 80 to 85 volts, the battery consists of 44 cells, divided into three
or four groups of cells held in separate oak boxes, or trays as they are
termed, to facilitate handling. This voltage is standard, regardless
of the size of the vehicle, the latter being compensated for by chang-
ing the capacity of the battery. Thus, for very small delivery wagons,
the cells each contain three positive and four negative plates of
medium size giving an 85-ampere-hour discharge capacity, while
a 1,000-pound wagon is equipped with a battery having nine-plate
cells with a capacity of 112 ampere hours; a 2,000-pound wagon,
eleven-plate cells of larger dimensions, giving 140 ampere hours;
and so on in accordance with the size of the vehicle and the load it
is designed to carry. However, the weight of the battery increases so
rapidly with increase in capacity that it has not been found desirable
to attempt to use very large units.
In the very small delivery wagons listed some years ago, it was
customary to carry the battery on the floor of the vehicle, putting a
second flooring above it to accommodate the load. This practice
has been abandoned for obvious reasons, as it made both the loading
floor and the center of gravity of the vehicle much too high. Prac-
tically all electric vehicles at the present time have the battery under-
slung, z. ^., carried in a cradle supported from the frame of the
chassis. This cradle is enclosed as a battery box for protection against
mud and water, and has hinged doors at the ends through which the
battery may be introduced or removed. By this arrangement the
weight of the battery, which is the heaviest single item in the entire
construction, is distributed evenly between the forward and rear
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wheels and leaves the entire floor space of the wagon available for
the load. . All of the wiring between the battery, controller, and
motor is carried beneath the floor and is protected from injury.
Control. The controller itself is placed either beneath the seat
or under the footboards in the case of delivery wagons and light
trucks, and is similar in construction to those employed on street
cars, but of much smaller size due to the low voltage and compara-
tively small amount of current to be handled. It is operated by a
small hand lever and provides three to five speeds ahead and two
or three reverse, all of which are obtainable by moving the same lever,
although a special lock or catch must first be operated before the
vehicle can be moved backward. This usually takes the form of
a pedal or kick plate which may be depressed with the heel and fre-
quently must be held down while reversing. It automatically returns
the controller to the ahead position when released, in order to pre-
vent the vehicle from being backed inadvertently.
At first, arrangements for steering took the form adopted on
the earliest gasoline cars, that is, the tiller or hand-lever form, but,
owing to its numerous shortcomings, this has now disappeared on
all but the lightest wagons. Left-hand control is often provided,
i. e.y both the controlling lever and the steering wheel are placed on
the left side of the wagon, which is most convenient on delivery wagons
as the driver's helper may leave and enter the wagon without going
round the vehicle.
Wheels. The usual artillery pattern, wood wheels are employed
and are almost universally carried on ball or roller bearings. Their
sizes reveal the conflict between the influence of ordinary delivery
wagon design and automobile practice, as some have 36-inch front
and 42-inch rear wheels — ^an old time horse-drawn wagon standard —
while others have 32- or 34-inch wheels all round as has become
customary in automobile building. The larger wheels are advanta-
geous, however, as they run easier on poor pavements and consume
slightly less power, their greater diameter being compensated for by
a correspondingly greater drop in the speed reduction from the motor
to the rear wheels, in order to keep the speed of the vehicle the same.
By modifying the design of the axles or frame, or both, the loading
platform of the wagon may be kept at the same height relative to
the ground, regardless ot the size of the wheeb, so that the employ- •
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ment of larger diameters is becoming, more common. This, again,
is but a reflection of the tendency of design in gasoline pleasure car
construction, in which 42-inch wheels are now employed, and affords
an instance of reversion to original standards, as pioneer automobiles
were all of the high-wheel type.
Brakes. Owing to the comparatively low speeds, the braking
equipment usually consists of but a single set of drums attached to
the driving wheels. Against the inner faces of these, bronze shoes
are expanded directly on the steel face of the drum by means of a
pedal and the usual brake rigging beneath the car. As is the case
in practically all chain-driven cars, the braking drums carry the
driving sprockets on their outer faces. In case of emergency, the
vehicle may be brought to a sudden stop by reversing the motor,
although this subjects the motor as well as the entire vehicle to un-
usually severe stresses.
Tires. While solid rubber tires are most generally employed,
this is not necessarily so, as where the merchandise to be carried is
of a light or fragile nature, or where speed is to be one of the chief
features of the delivery service, pneumatic tires are preferable. They
not only reduce the liability to breakage, but also lessen the cost of
maintaining the vehicle in repair. However, as there are com-
paratively few branches of commercial service in which the pneu-
matic tire is economically practical, its use is very limited. The
solid tires employed vary in size from two to four inches, and for
weights in excess of the capacity of the latter, they are used in twin
form on the rear wheels.
Types. Fig. 1 illustrates the Studebaker 800-pound load capacity,
delivery wagon. It is equipped with a 40-cell Exide lead-plate bat-
tery, supplying current at 84 volts to two high-speed series motors
which drive the rear wheels directly by chains, as already described.
The vehicle has a speed of 2 miles to 12 miles per hour, and is capable
of traveling 35 miles on a single charge of the battery. The battery
is located almost direcdy under the center of the pressed steel frame,
and the battery compartment is built integral with the frame itself,
forming an inverted truss. The axles are heavy drop-forgings, and
owing to the use of two motors, no differential is employed on the
rear, the motors, battery, and all other parts of the mechanism
being carried by the springs, which, in the smaller types, are of the
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elliptic type ordinarily employed in wagon-building practice. There
are two sets of brakes, each working independently, and arranged
to be applied by pedal levers, one set controlling expanding bands in
drums on the rear wheel hubs, while the other brakes are of the
same type but are mounted on the motor countershafts. Plain parallel
bearings are employed with ample bearing surface. The dimensions
of the 800-pound wagon are: wheel base, 84 inches; gauge, 59 inches;
wheels, 36 by 2 J inches front and 42 by'2i inches rear, the tire equip-
ment being solid rubber, though iron or wood tires ijiay also be had.
Fig. 1. Studebaker 800-Pound Electric Delivery Wagon.
In addition to the usual control, an emergency switch is provided
within convenient reach of the driver, making it possible to quickly
shut off the power from the motors altogether. This switch can only
be moved when in a certain position ; it also answers as a lock when
the vehicle is standing. One of the 1,500-pound Studebaker wagons
is shown in Fig. 2 with an open express type of body, and it will be
noted that its design is identical with the smaller vehicle already
described.
The Waverley electric delivery wagons are characterized by the
employment of a single motor, as is also the case with the majority
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of others in this field. This drives to a countershaft, from which
the final drive is taken to the rear wheeb by the usual roller chains
Fig. 2. Studebaker 1500-Pound Convertible Station Wagon.
and sprockets. They are equipped with 42 cells of Exide lead-plate
battery, or erf the National battery. The dimensions of the 1,200-
pound delivery wagon are: 91-inch wheel base, 60-inch tread, with
Fig. 3. LAnsden Delivery Chassis.
32-inch front and 36-inch rear wheels, equipped with 3-inch solid
rubber tires. The suspension takes the form of semi-elliptic springs
in the front and full elliptic in the rear, the brakes being of the con-
ventional internal expanding type in drums on the rear hubs, sup-
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plemented by a countershaft brake. The axles are plain drop-
forgings, the differential being placed in the countershaft. Steering
is by wheel, which controls a gear of the pinion and sector type.
The Lansden delivery wagons represent a departure from the
conventional type in several respects. Iij the first place, they employ
a 60-cell Edison battery, instead of the usual lead-plate type. Though
considerably lighter, this cell has a much lower voltage than the lead
cell, which accounts for the greater number employed and, the extra
space required on the vehicle as shown by the chassis plan view of a
Lansden, Fig. 3. It will also be noted from this that a single motor
is employed, wound to take current at 72 volts. It is located at the
rear of the chassis and drives forward by means of a single chain to
a countershaft. The latter, instead of being of the round or square
section ordinarily employed, takes the form of a flat bar 2 inches wide
by f to } inch thick, according to the power it is to transmit. The
material is spring steel, so that the countershaft acts as a cushion
to prevent the stresses of starting from being transmitted to the tires
and the mechanism of the car, and it has proved unusually effective
for this purpose. From this countershaft, the final drive is taken to
the rear wheels by long side chains of the usual roller type. The
countershaft also embodies the differential, so that the axles are plain,
the wheels being carried on long bronze sleeve bearings. The steer-
ing wheel is placed on the left-hand side and the steering column
carries the controller lever. The brakes in the rear hubs are operated
by a pedal. The appearance of a complete delivery wagon of the
Lansden type may be judged from Fig. 4.
The load capacity of this wagon is 1,600 pounds and it has a
radius of 40 miles on a single charge of the battery at an average speed
of 11 miles an hour. The weight of the complete vehicle is 3,000
pounds, its wheel base is 88 inches, its tread 56 inches, and the
tire equipment consists of 32-inch by 3-inch solid rubber tires all round.
The vehicle is operated by means of a special form of continuous
torque controller, giving three or four speeds forward, as desired
by the purchaser, and two speeds on reverse.
Range of Usefulness of the Electric Delivery Wagon. It has been
regarded as a generally accepted fact in the past that the usefulness
of the electric delivery wagon must, of necessity, be limited to strictly
city service, where the routes are well paved and the run does not
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involve traveling more than 30 to 35 miles a day at the most — at least,
without aflFording an opportunity for a stop during the limch hour
in order to give the batteries a "boost," at some convenient charg-
ing station. This was quite true in eariier days and the distances
were even shorter for a day's work, but considerable improvement
has been made both in the vehicles generally and the batteries since
then. As a result,-it has become possible to employ electric delivery
wagons to great advantage in suburban service, and what would
have been considered remarkable records not long ago are now
matters of course.
For example, a 1,000-pound Lansden delivery wagon — equipped
with one of the new Edison nickel-iron batteries of 65 cells, weigh-
ing 700 pounds — operating constantly in the service of one of New
York's largest drygoods houses, which regularly maintains 41 elec-
tric and gasoline machines in addition to 100 head of horses, covered
45 miles over heavy, muddy roads and made 175 stops for package
deliveries on the trip to Coney Island and return. The same wagon
was later transferred to a route on the Jersey side of the Hudson
River, extending down the Bergen Point peninsula to Bayonne, and
regularly served a route of 43 miles, calling for an average of 125
daily deliveries, without requiring any "boosting" of the battery.
In the service of the same house, a Lansden 2,000-pound capacity
wagon, weighing 2,460 pounds, and equipped with a new Edison
battery, weighing 1,200 pounds, ran 93 miles on three consecutive
days, making an average of 100 stops per day, on a single charge of
the battery. The first two days' run were to Bergen Point, and the
third to Staten Island, where the roads are very hilly, though gen-
erally of good macadam construction. The same wagon and bat-
tery, operating in the service of the Macy department store in May,
1909, made a trip to Morristown and return, covering 72 miles over
hilly roads and making 45 deliveries, on a single charge. On another
occasion, it was sent to Tottenville, Staten Island, over equally hilly
roads, making 60 stops and covering 56 miles on one charge. In
regular daily service, this wagon makes 56 to 57 miles a day on an
average without any necessity for boosting the battery, returning
to the garage at night good for 10 to 12 miles more. Its working
time has averaged 14 to 18 hours a day, being recharged during the
night at a 40-ampere rate for six or seven hours.
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The delivery experts of the two establishments in question are
of the opinion that this wagon is easily capable of covering the longest
and hardest routes operated out of New York City by any company,
and that the capacity of the wagon is far in excess of the endurance
of the driver and helper. It must be admitted that these are excep-
tional records for electric vehicles and surpass the capabilities of
the heavier types propelled by lead storage batteries, but they are
suflBcient to demonstrate that the electric is not a strictly city-service
machine and likewise that as a class, the electrically-driven vehicle
is not ihe decadent type that many suppose it to be.
ELECTRIC TRUCKS
In the classification of vehicles as listed by some manufacturers
there is more or less diflSculty in drawing a distinct line between the
delivery wagon and the truck, as a 2,000-pound delivery wagon
chassis when fitted with what is known as a stake body — that is, an
open platform with removable stakes for holding on the load — ^is fre-
quently listed as a "light truck." It is the same chassis as that on
which the delivery wagon body is mounted, and is simply fitted for
transporting a different character of merchandise, usually goods in
cases or in bulk. Between the light truck and the heavier vehicle
intended for the same general service, the chief difference is that of
dimension, even up to the 10,000-pound, or 5-ton truck, which is
about the maximum that has been found practicable for electric
propulsion.
There is little, if any, difference in design, the frames, axles,
wheels, springs, and transmission simply being made heavier in pro-
portion to the great increase in load to be carried, while there is a
corresponding difference in the power of the motor or motors and
in the size of the chains or other essentials of the transmission. As
already mentioned, some makers, such as the Greneral Vehicle, adhere
to the single motor power plant even in sizes up to 2-ton and 3-ton
capacity, on the score of increased economy and higher efficiency,
while others, such as the Studebaker, employ two motors on vehicles
as small as the 2,000-pound size.
The dividing line between the capabilities of the electric and
gasoline vehicle for the transportation of heavy merchandise, in large
quantities, is more sharply drawn than where lighter types of the
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 23
two are concerned. It has been demonstrated that the electric de-
livery wagon is capable of performing more work in the course of a
day than lies within the capacity of the driver, while its average speed
is quite up to that usually permitted by legal restriction in urban and
outlying communities. It has the advantages already pointed out
of being handled by an unskilled driver and is not subject to the
latter's lack of knowledge to the same extent as is the gasoline-driven
car, the adjustments of which may be easily tinkered with and are
not diflBcult to derange, so that it appears quite probable that both
types will continue as active competitors in this particular field.
Power Limits. The matter assumes a totally diflferent aspect
as weights increase, owing to an inherent shortcoming of the electric
vehicle, viz, lack of power capacity. The amount of energy that
can be chemically converted and held in reserve by the battery for
use in the motors has very sharply defined limits. Weight of the
battery itself is naturally the principal factor that determines this,
and, beyond a certain point, its increase is totally disproportionate
to the gain in capacity. As this has a direct bearing on the load
efficiency of the vehicle itself, i. e,, the amount of useful load it can
transport as compared with its own weight, there is a still further
limitation. This will serve to explain why it has not been found
practical to build electric vehicles with a capacity exceeding five tons.
It may be added here, that a comparatively small number of the
latter has ever been put in service, and as an electric vehicle of this
size forms such a close approach to what experience has demonstrated
to be the available limit of usefulness for this method of propulsion,
that its use is seldom considered favorably by transportation experts.
Next to the delivery wagon, in which electric power has scored its
greatest success, trucks of 2-ton and 3-ton capacity are the most com-
mon forms of electric vehicles. In order to obtain the increase in load-
carrying capacity, the size of the motor must naturally be enlarged
with a corresponding increase in the power consumption, which calls
for a very much larger battery. In order that the capacity of the
latter may be sufficient to give the vehicle a practical radius of travel
on a single charge, without unduly adding to the weight, the speed
is reduced, and electric trucks of 2-ton capacity usually have an
average speed of 8 to 10 miles an hour; 3-ton trucks, 6 to 9 miles
an hour, and 5-ton trucks seldom exceed 6 miles an hour. Even
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24 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
at these low speeds, it is difficult to obtain a daily mileage exceeding
20 to 25 miles on a single charge of the battery, and where the latter
is of the lead-plate type and has been allowed to fall off in efficiency
through deterioration or careless handling, they will not accomplish
that distance on a single charge, without resorting to "boosting" the
battery. This means giving the battery a heavy charge, i. e.,
sending current into^ it at a high charging rate for a short period
before it is more than three-quarters discharged, in order to enable
the vehicle to return to its garage. As will be noted in the chapter
on the subject of charging the batteries, this is poor practice and is
detrimental to the battery. A route should not be served by an
electric vehicle whose capacity is not sufficient to cover the distance
without resorting to boosting.
Some examples taken from actual practice will best serve to
illustrate the foregoing. For example, take the Studebaker baggage
transfer wagon, Fig. 5. This is rated as having a useful load capacity
of 2,500 pounds. According to the makers, this is a "teamster's
rating" and the wagon is designed to give good service with frequent
overloads ranging as high as 100 per cent, on the assumption that
the average load, year in and year out, will not exceed 2,600 pounds.
It must naturally be borne in mind, however, that the speed and
traveling radius are limited entirely by the load carried. For in-
stance, this wagon has a speed of 9 J miles an hour on good, hard, level
roads, with an average load of two-thirds its rated capacity. It will
be noted that this machine properly falls within the light truck class
and the manufacturers offer it either in the form illustrated, or with
a delivery body. Its construction is along conventional lines, em-
ploying a pressed steel frame, semi-elliptic springs, and drive by two
motors with a single-speed reduction by chains to the 42-inch driving
wheels, in accordance with the usual Studebaker practice. The front
wheels are 36 inches in diameter, the wheel base is 104 inches, and
the battery complete is suspended from the frame in a substantial
battery box, hung just forward of the motors. Doors at the side
permit the withdrawal of the battery in trays as usual. The dimen-
sions of the load-carrying space are 115 inches in length by 43 inches
in width for the open wagon, and 63 inches in height, when a
delivery body is employed.
Next to the type just described is the Studebaker 4,000-pound
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 27
stake truck. This is also a teamster's rating and the vehicle is capable
of frequent overloads not exceeding 50 per cent of its normal capacity,
under conditions similar to those already referred to in the case of
the lighter vehicle. Its speed with two-thirds of its rated capacity
on level, hard roads, is the same as before, i. e., 9^ miles an hour.
It has a wheel base of 117 inches, gauge of 62^ inches, and is fitted
with 36-inch artillery wheels, front and rear, the tires on the rear
bemg of the twin type, measuring 3^ inches in diameter, while
the forward ones are 5-inch single, solid rubber tires. The dimen-
sions of its load-carrying space are 156 inches long by 49^ inches wide.
So far as their appearance is concerned, the Studebaker 7,000
and 10,000-pound electric wagons, do not differ materially from the
Fig. 7. Studebaker 10,000-Pound Stake lYuck.
2-ton size. Their speeds are respectively 9 miles and 7^ miles an
hour, these being the maximum with two-thirds capacity, as before,
the average rate of travel naturally being less. The wheel base is
127 inches in the smaller, and 126 inches in the larger, with gauges
of 75 inches and 76 inches respectively; 36-inch wheels are em-
ployed throughout on the running gear; the only difference being
in the size of the tires, which are 4-inch twin type on the rear in
both cases, with 5-inch single forward on the smaller, and 7-inch
on the larger truck. The load platform dimensions of the 3i-ton
truck are 157 by 56 inches and for the larger, 169^ by 58i inches.
A Studebaker 7,000-poimd wagon is shown, in Fig. 6, while the 5-ton
wagon of the same make is shown in Fig. 7. One of the latter is
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28 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
employed by the U. S. Grovemment in connection with the Marine
Arsenal at Washington, D. C, and renders excellent service in the
transportation of heavy forgings and other gun parts.
Service. Some idea of the service rendered by an electric vehicle
in strictly city use may be gained from the work accomplished by a
Studebaker 1,500-pound delivery wagon of the type shown in Fig. 8.
This wagon was in service steadily for 15 months and was never idle
except when the batteries were being washed. It was kept running
seven days a week, and frequendy at night in addition, and during
Fig. 8. Studebaker 1,500-Pound Delivery Wagon.
that time averaged 24 miles a day. One of the 2,500-pound size
averaged 32 to 35 miles a day on a single charge of the battery,
making a total of 1,000 miles a month of city travel for four months'
running. This car was also fitted with a delivery wagon body of the
usual enclosed type. One of the numerous styles of bodies available
is shown in Fig. 9, which is a small sight-seeing 'bus mounted on
a 1,500-pound capacity chassis.
Heavy Types. As further examples of the heavier types of
electric trucks, there may be cited the Waverly two- and three-ton
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sizes. These trucks are fitted with a battery of 42 Exide cells
having large plates and are equipped with a G. E. motor driv-
ing the rear wheels through the medium of one gear reduction,
through herringbone pinion and gear, and a first speed re-
duction through a chain. In other respects, their construction is
substantially the same as in the case of the vehicles just described.
The 2-ton Waveriy truck has a 111-inch wheel base with 73-inch
gauge, while the 3-ton size measures 118 inches on the wheel base,
the tread being the same. Both bodies have been designed for mer-
chandise of an intermediate character, where weight is concerned,
Fig. 9. Studeb&ker 1.500-Pound Convertible Station Wagon.
and the load space is accordingly very large, being 192 inches by 72
inches by 84 inches high, in the 2-ton, and 156 inches by 54 inches
by 72 inches high in the larger. Trucks of this make are distinguished
by a silent chain drive from the motor to a short countershaft, con-
stituting the first speed reduction The motor itself is placed closer
to the rear axle than is customary in most other types and the silent
chain is very short. This countershaft is equipped with a universal
joint close to each end, while at each extremity it carries a pinion
meshing with a gear on the axle itself. The gearing is very silent
and efficient and is of the herringbone type in which the teeth are of
widened V form.
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The electrics listed by the General Vehicle Company aflFord an
excellent example of a standard design of chassis applied to cars
ranging from 1,000 pounds capacity up to 5 tons, the intermediate
sizes being 2,000 pounds, 2 tons, and 3^ tons. The first two are
naturally delivery wagons and are capable of traveling 45 miles on
a single charge of the b'attery at a maximum speed of 11 and 10 miles
per hour respectively. The 2-ton wagon, while capable of the
same mileage, has a maximum speed of but 9 miles per hour. This
is further reduced to 8 miles an hour for the 3i-ton truck, which has
a radius of but 40 miles on a charge, while the 5-ton truck travels but
7 miles an hour as a maximum and has an extreme radius of but
35 miles on a charge. In every case, but a single motor is used, and
as the design in all other respects is also standard for all sizes, a
description of the 2,000-pound wagon will suffice.
Fig. 10. General Vehicle Company Pressed Steel Frame.
With the exception of the use of a single-motor drive, a large
number of the parts employed are practically the same as those used
in other makes of electrics. The foundation of the entire car consists
of a pressed steel frame. Fig. 10, to which is directly riveted the
cradle for carrying the battery, the spring hangers, and the supports
for the countershaft bearings. The view of the complete chassis given
in Fig. 11, is taken from below and illustrates every essential
except the battery. From left to right there are the semi-elliptic
rear springs, the solid steel rear axle, artillery wheels with solid
rubber tires and large driven sprockets, driving chains, the single
motor suspended directly from the frame, the silent chain drive from
the motor to the countershaft, the terminal board for the wiring from
the controller to the motor, and the countershaft with its radius rods
to equalize and maintain its distance from the rear axle. These rods
also serve to take the stresses of driving off the rear springs. Just in
front of the countershaft is the steel cradle for the battery trays, then at
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Fig. 12. General Vehicle Company Chassis — Rear View.
the lower side the steering gear, and at the upper a resistance, and
the bell, the forward axle, springs, wheels, and so forth.
An excellent view of the entire rear construction which gives a
Fig. 13. General Electric Motor.
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clear idea of the arrangement of the power and the drive, is shown
in Fig. 12, while the essentials comprising it are shown in detail in
Fig. 13 — which is the G. E. multipolar, ironclad motor — ^Fig. 14 —
the countershaft with its supporting housing — and Fig. 15 — the same
Fig. 14. General Vehicle Company Countershaft and Housing.
part, showing the diflFerential driving shafts and sprockets as well as
the two types of chains employed. Fig. 16 shows the rear axle, and
Fig. 17, one of the rear wheels with its attached sprocket, while the
Fig. 15. Countershaft without Housing Showing Differential Gears and Chains.
forward axle and its steering attachments is shown in Fig. 18. The
type of controller employed, together with its operating lever, is
shown in Fig. 19, while Fig. 20 illustrates the usual charging plug
connection used on commercial electric vehicles.
Battery Specifications. A 44-cell storage battery furnishes
current at 85 volts, the motor being wound to operate economically
at this voltage. The battery is in sectional form in crates of such
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Fig. 16. General Vehicle Company Rear Axle.
Fig. 17. Rear Wheel and Sprocket.
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Fig. 18. General Vehicle Oompany Front Axle.
weight and size as to permit of easy removal or replacement from
either side of the vehicle. It is so arranged that it may be recharged
without disturbing it, but where two batteries are employed, a charged
set may be easily and quickly substituted for the exhausted battery.
Pig. 19. General Vehicle Controller.
The controller is of the continuous torque type, which permits of
changing the motor speeds by degrees without interruptmg the power
between any of the steps. This gives a gradual and steady acceleration,
Fig. 20. Charging Plug.
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without jerk or strain, which are detrimental to the life and eflBciency
of every part of the vehicle. The motor is designed along the same
lines as have proven so successful in street railway work. It has a
very heavy shaft, simple and durable brush rigging, and is wound to
show not alone a high eflBciency, but also a high capacity for overload.
The armature shaft is carried on annular ball bearings which tend
to greatly increase the eflBciency of the motor as a whole. It is sus-
pended on a transverse bar pivoted to the side members of the frame,
forward of the rear axle. This pivoted suspension keeps the motor
shaft parallel with the countershaft throughout the entire range of
chain adjustment and permits the use of an eflBcient silent chain drive.
Transmission. The entire countershaft is housed-in and is
carried on four taper roller bearings inside the tube, the latter being
held in self-aligning ball sleeves in hangers riveted to the sides of the
frame. The two short driving shafts are connected by a spur differ^
ential and carry at their outer ends small sprockets for the roller
chains to drive the rear wheels, the entire countershaft being a com-
plete unit. It is driven by a silent chain of ample width running over
a small pinion on the motor and the gear of the diflFerential. The
battery capacities are 112 ampere hours for the one- and two-thousand-
pound delivery wagons, the motor of the former developing its power
at 2,000 r. p. m., while all the others run at 1,200 r. p. m. The 2-
ton truck has a battery capacity of 168 ampere hours, the 3J-ton
truck, 196 ampere hours, and the 5-ton truck, 280 ampere hours.
The controller in every case, provides four speeds ahead and two
reverse.
SPECIAL FORMS OP THB BLBCTRIC
Couple-Qear Truck. Owing to the ease and directness with which
the power may be applied, electricity lends itself admirably to special
forms of construction, a particularly ingenious example of which
is to be found in the drive of the Couple-Gear truck— so-called because
all four wheels are driven by electric motors and all are utilized for
steering purposes. These vehicles are built as straight electrics,
using a storage battery as the source of current; and as gas-electric
vehicles, a gasoline engine and generator forming the power plant,
the remainder of the design and construction being the same in both
cases.
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The motor is built directly into the wheel, as will be apparent
from the illustration of a dismounted wheel shown in Fig. 2L The
motor is of bipolar type, designed with flat fields in order that it may
fit within the wheel without unduly increasing its section and is held
by its attachment to the axle. The wheel accordingly revolves about
the motor, being driven by the two small pinions noticeable on op-
posite ends of the armature shaft, and which mesh with the circular
racks attached to the periphery of the wheel. The brushes are carried
in a yoke bolted to the outer half of the field casting, so that the re-
moval of the latter makes everything accessible. The appearance
of the complete wheel, minus its tire, will be apparent from Fig. 22,
which shows it end qn, and also serves to illustrate the drive, one of
Fig. 21. Dismounted Couple-Gear Truck Wheel Showing Motor Parts.
the pinions meshing with a rack on the inner half of the wheel, and
the second with the outer half. The electric cables for conveying
current to the motor are led through the hollow axle. Apart from
this feature and the employment of a four-wheel steer, the vehicle
itself follows more or less conventional lines.
Lansden Scenery Wagon. 'The scenery wagon. Fig. 23, has a
load capacity of 4,000 pounds and measures 20 feet 6 inches over all;
it is also designed to haul a small trailer behind it to support
the unusually long scenery employed in the Metropolitan Opera
House. The tread is 66 inches, and the wheel base 148 inches, and
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Fig. 22. Assembled Couple>Gear Wheel with Tire Removed.
Fig. 23. Lansden Special Scenery Wagon.
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the weight of the vehicle 5,000 pounds; the tires are 32-inch by
4-inch solid rubber, and the chassis in other respects is of the same
construction as the regular delivery wagons listed by the same makers.
The motive power is a single motor fed with current from a 60-cell
Edison battery.
Dock Trucks. A special and very serviceable type of electric
truck has been developed for use in handUng cargoes. Fig. 24 shows
two of these trucks in action, and gives an excellent idea of' their
characteristics. These dock trucks are built on a special con-
vertible system by which they may be readily supplied as either
single or double-ended cars. A plan view of the double-ended type
of chassis is shown in Fig. 25. One of the special features of this
Fig. 25. Double-Ended Dock Truck Chassis.
vehicle is the fact that it may be interchangeably driven from either
end, by simply lifting out the steering colunm which carries the wheel
and controlling lever with it. There is a controller at each end and
a special switch governing the direction in which the vehicle will run.
The method of interchangeable steering will be apparent at a glance
at the illustration. The load capacity of these trucks is 4,000 pounds
and they are capable of running 18 miles on a charge of the battery
at a speed of 4^ miles per hour. The weight of the car complete is
2,750 pounds. The driving wheels, 24 inches in diameter, and shod
with 6-inch rubber tires, are placed in the center of the chassis, while
at each end a single steering wheel of smaller diameter is provided
with steel tires. The platform space is 14 feet 6 inches long by
4 feet broad, arid stands 28 inches above the floor. Several of the
same type of truck are also in use as baggage transfer wagons in
railway terminals.
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GASOLINE VEHICLES
TAXICABS
Development. Looked upon generally as being nothing more
or less than a slight modification of the pleasure automobile^ the
taxicab has, inreality, proved to be one of the most important factors
in the development of the commercial vehicle as a type. Automobile
designers were of the opinion at the outset that little else but size
distinguished the touring car from a vehicle adapted to public service.
European designers undertook to proceed along this line as far back
as 1904 and were grievously misled thereby. It did not take long
to demonstrate that there was a world of difference between an
automobile intended for occasional service, even though the fetter
be hard, and one that would be called upon to work ten to ei^^teen
hours a day, in all kinds of weather, and every day in the year.
New York was really a pioneer in the adoption of the motor-
driven cab, as they were to be seen on the streets of this metropolis
as early as 1899. They were not taxicabs, simply because they were
not provided with the distance- and time-recording meter that has
been responsible for the creation of that appellation, but they were
probably the first motor-driven vehicles to be employed in this service.
Electricity formed the motive power and the vehicles themselves
were of the hansom type with the driver seated on top or behind,
according to the precedent established by the horse-drawn hansom;
later, coup&, victorias, opera buses, and the like, were used.
These vehicles were placed in service at a time when neither
the batteries nor the method of transmitting the power to the road
wheels had reached a high state of development; they were accord-
ingly ineflScient as compared with later-day cabs, but they were very
solidly built, as b shown by the fact that many of them are in active
service right up to the present That their earning power is low as
compared with the gasoline vehicle, due to the higher cost of opera-
tion, goes without saying, but they appear to be destined to remain
in service for some time, so far as can be judged at the present writing.
When first employed, the electric vehicle was the only type that could
be depended upon to provide reliable service, and the delay in adopt-
ing gasoline-driven cars for this service was a result of their short-
comings in this respect. Only one company attempted their use on
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any scale in this country, and was responsible shortly afterward for
their introduction abroad.
Despite the numerous points of similarity between the average
touring car and the public service vehicle, French designers, who
were the first to attempt a gasoline taximeter cab service, found that
there were many lessons to be learned. These first attempts were
accordingly not always of the most profitable nature, but they served
to give their promoters much valuable experience upon which later
developments have been based.
The gasoline taxicab was not introduced into this country until
1907, and, as was to be expected, the first cabs came from abroad,
a company starting in New York with about 150 vehicles the first
year. How great has been the growth in the few years intervening
is illustrated by the fact that New York alone now has more than a
dozen companies operating between two and three thousand cabs —
which are not always suflScient to supply the demands by any means.
Competent Drivers. With the taxicab, just as with all other
gasoline-driven vehicles in the commercial field, the procurement
of a suflScient number of skilled drivers to handle the cars proved
at the outset a greater diflBculty than the designing of a car suited
to the service. In view of the extremely rapid growth, the demand
for such men has naturally been entirely disproportionate to the
supply, applicants in a very large number of instances being nothing
more than hack drivers whose only asset is a chaufiFeur's license
from the state.
The capacity for destructiveness of the green drivers was further
added to by the system of remuneration first in vogue — ^that of paying
the driver entirely on a commission basis. In New York, this was
20 per cent of the net earnings of the cab, the driver paying for the
fuel used at cost; while in Europe a nominal wage was paid, supple-
mented by percentages on a sliding scale in accordance with the earn-
ings of the cab. In every case, this was controlled by the taximeter
which provided an accurate check on the day's work by recording
the total distance run and the sum received by the driver.
Taximeters. The Jones taximeter. Fig. 26, was the first instru-
ment of the kind to be manufactured in this country, and as all tax-
imeters work on the same principles and are substantially alike in
construction, it will be unnecessary to refer to others. A series of
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numbered dials, carrying the figures on their edges, are actuated
according to their decimal values on a dollar basis, by a flexible shaft
connection with one of the wheels of the cab. Formerly one of the
driving wheels was utilized for this purpose, but due to the slip of
the latter on wet pavements or ice, a mileage greatly in excess of that
actually traveled was often recorded, and the objection raided by
the public was so general that the driving mechanism was transferred
to a front wheel. As is the case with the ordinary speedometer, the
instrument's working is based upon the diameter of the wheel by
which it is driven. For instance, assuming the circumference of a
30-inch wheel to be 90 inches — ^in round numbers for the sake of
illustration — ^it would make 704 revolutions per mile, no deduction
being made for slip. This number of revolutions would cause the
first dial to revolve once and the rate per mile to appear at the first
opening. For example, on a basis of 30 cents per mile, the latter
sum would show; but as this is the minimum charge, the taximeter
is arranged so that when the engaged lever is put down, this charge
appears. After the first mile the dial is arranged to record quarter
miles, at the rate of ten cents, usually. Extras, such as carrying
baggage or going beyond the limits of certain districts, are manually
recorded on the taximeter by the driver, and a second series of record-
ing dials, the figures of which are visible through openings in the
rear of the instrument, indicate the total amount received.
Operating Costs. Repairs. While from the first> earnings have
been large, some of the drivers have been able to damage the cars
faster than the shops could repair them; and the lack of experience
in the handling of the machines has also resulted in frequent
accidents, so that operating costs have been correspondingly high.
Immunity from repairs, or at least a reasonable freedom from
breakdown, is of vital importance in the operation of any commercial
vehicle, but especially so in the taxicab. These little cars average
80 to 100 miles per day, and in the hands of particularly ambitious
drivers have been known to run as high as 125 to 150 miles for days
in succession. As the driver is working in his own interest, he is
naturally tempted to get there and .back as quickly as possible, in
order to cut down his waiting time to the minimum. The result in
the first year of operation was a list of repair charges that was appall-
ing. Stripped gears, battered radiators, damaged bodies, and the
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like were of such frequent occurrence that a considerable percentage,
in fact, an excessive fraction of the total equipment was always in
the shop. Seized motors were not unknown as factors in this list,
as some of the novice drivers found even the absolutely simple lu-
bricating system employed beyond their comprehension. This trouble
was so general that a rule was enforced making it compulsory for
the driver to always feed suflScient lubricating oil to keep the motor
smoking. Such a procedure would have led to endless trouble in Paris
where it is a misdemeanor to permit smoke to issue from the muffler;
but in New York no such ordinance existed, and with the increase in
the number of cabs, the smoke nuisance became flagrant, for the
companies found it more economical to let the motors smoke, due
to the excessive lubricant, and give them a periodical overhaul-
ing and cleaning, rather than to be called upon to repair them at
short intervals owing to a lack of oil.
Tires. The advent of the taxicab in large numbers also served
to give the pneumatic tire an entirely new status. Previous to that
time, this was generally looked upon as the most unreliable and
costly part of an automobile; but for commercial service, pneumatic
tires are not bought outright as is the case with the individual
user. The companies contract with the tire manufacturer for their
equipment entirely on a mileage basis. That is, the tires are sup-
plied as often as needed, compensation being calculated only on the
mileage they run, so that whether a tire gives long service or fails
after a very short time, it does not cost the user any more, every tire
being numbered and a record of its mileage kept by an employe of
the tire maker, this being made possible by the taximeter. The
system goes far toward showing how erroneous the prevailing impres-
sion of tire weakness is, as it proves that pneumatics may be guar-
anteed for a certain mileage on a working commercial basis. The
recording instruments are also leased and are kept in order by the
manufacturers. At the outset, delays from puncture were guarded
against by providing all the cabs with a Stepney spare wheel, which
consists of a special rim carrying an inflated tire and provided with
lugs which permit it to be bolted directly to the wheel in a few minutes,
but this does not appear to have met with general adoption. The
spare wheel was put in place without attempting to remove the dam-
aged tire, and the driver's instructions were to return to the station
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for a new tire as soon as possible after the puncture occurs, though
there is nothing to prevent the spare wheel from being run for con-
siderable distances on either the front or rear wheels with perfect
safety.
Requirements of Service. It may appear at furst sight as if the
foregoing were more or less irrelevant, particularly in a work devoted
largely to design, but its bearing on the subject will be realized from
the description of the cabs in use, both their design and construction
having been influenced to a very great extent by the experiences out-
lined above. Either because they failed to recognize the limitations
of the average touring type of vehicle for this purpose, or because
they were too busy producing the latter to be able to devote attention
to the development of a new type, American makers were not pre-
pared to meet the demand when it first arose. As a result, foreign
manufacturers supplied the first two American cab companies with
their vehicles and in this manner obtained such a hold on the market
that quite a substantial percentage of the entire foreign car imports
have consisted of cabs for the past three years. Judging from the
nature of the experiences related of their early use, it is evident that
several things were demanded of the successful taxicab that were
not of such great importance in the touring car. Chief among these
is the requirement of absolute simplicity^ which means the absence
of all necessity, or, in fact, possibility of adjustment by the driver.
Then follows compactTiess, ease of handling y and ready interchange-
ability, as in such strenuous service as the cab is called upon to
perform, the need for repairs is more or less frequent, even in the
hands of the most careful drivers.
Types. Foreign. Practically all of the first cabs to see service
in this country were of French origin, these being, in the order
of their numerical importance, the Darracq, De Dion, and Delahaye.
It will be noticeable from the description of the Darracq and that of
some of the more prominent American cars of this type, that makers
in this country were quick to take advantage of the results of the
experience of their foreign confrferes. The Darracq motor is of the
four-cycle, four-cylinder, vertical type, with the four cylinders, as
well as a large part of the piping for the inlet and exhaust, cast in a
single piece, a practice that has since been followed largely here,
in light touring car, as well as cab, design. This eliminates prac-
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tically 90 per cent of the usual piping; the inlet and exhaust passages
being cored right out of the casting, the necessary cooling of tfie
latter being obtained by casting radiating flanges on it. Only two
short lengths of pipe are necessary between the water jackets and
the radiator for the circulation of the cooling water.
Designed in this manner, the motor becomes virtually a block
which is mounted so as to be readily taken oflf or replaced on the
chassis, and as its cylinder dimensions are very small (3.3 inches
bore by 3.9 inches stroke), the motor as a whole is very compact.
Such cylinders as these appear puny beside those ordinarily employed
in pleasure-car design, but the object has naturally been to keep the
power and weight down to but slightly more than what are actually
needed. A motor can only approach its maximum eflSciency when
run under an approximation to its full load, and where a large amount
of excess power is provided for as in the touring car, this is not pos-
sible, particularly in city streets with their close speed limitation
and frequent necessity for slowing down and stopping. This small
motor develops 18 horse-power, which is ample, and is of course,
very economical in its consumption of fuel and lubricating oil, which
represent very substantial items of expense in the running of a large
number of machines.
A Bosch high-tension magneto comprises the sole provision for
ignition, thus reducing the wiring to the simplest terms. It is located
under the exhaust manifold, an easily accessible, but out-of-the-way
place, this being an otherwise bare side of the motor as all the valves
are placed on the opposite side. The sparking point is fixed, but
may be retarded for starting by pulling a small trigger located near
the cranking handle, so that the entire control of the motor is cen-
tered in the throttle lever, which takes the form of a pedal, in order
that the driver may have both hands free for steering and manipulating
the change gear lever. Driving is thus reduced to steering, braking,
and operating the clutch and gear-shifting lever.
The power plant, consisting of the motor and clutch forward,
constitutes one easily handled unit, while the drive is a second, the
gear box being mounted on the rear axle. Three speeds forward
and reverse are provided, gear-changing being by means of the
usual lever operating in a gate sector, and the entire transmission
may be taken down or replaced with the same ease as the motor,
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simplicity and interchangeability having been attained by uniting
the differential and gearset in the same housing on the rear axle.
In addition to the switch and pressure feed lubricator on the dash,
there is a small lever by means of which the exhaust may be made
to pass through a foot warmer in the floor of the body before reaching
the open air. The wheel base is short and the frame is made as nar-
row as possible forward, so that the (»b may be turned round in the
ordinary narrow cross-town street without resorting to the reverse.
This makes the cabs exceptionally easy to handle in congested traflSc,
these features having been brought about largely through the rigorous
traflBc regulations of the London police, as the first of these caibs were
designed for service in that city.
American. The chief source of trouble with the majority of
American taxicabs first placed in service was due to the fact that
they were not taxicabs at all, but merely touring chassis fitted with
landaulet bodies and taximeters — in fact, the addition of the record-
ing instruments appeared to be the only thing necessary to accomplish
the conversion. But the demand for power-driven, public-service
vehicles has been so great that a large number of these makeshift
cars have been run profitably.
The Thomas taxicab was one of the first of American production
to be designed especially for this purpose, and as will be noted from
its specifications, its builders were careful to follow the precepts
learned through costly experience by foreign makers. It is equipped
with a four-cylinder vertical motor cast en bhc, with the inlet and
exhaust passages integral, the latter being cooled by radiating flanges
cast right on it. The cylinder dimensi(His are 3f-inch by 4yV-inch
bore and stroke respectively, with an output of 16 to 20 horse-power.
The valves are all placed on the same side and amply water-jacketed,
as are also the exhaust manifold and the carbureter, the latter being
of the simplest automatic type. The flywheel has blades attached
to its periphery to act as a fan, while a pump is dispensed with, the
water circulation being on the thermo-siphon principle. Ignition
is by the Bosch high-tension magneto with fixed sparking point, the
control being confined to a throttle lever on the steering wheel and
a pedal accelerator. Lubrication is provided for by a pressure
operated oiler mounted on the dash. The complete motor and
dutch, which is of the three-disk type using cork inserts, is a simple
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and compact unit, mounted on a three-point suspension to relieve
it of any stress that would otherwise be imposed by any bending of
the frame. •
Drive is by propeller shaft, the gearset, differential, and bevel
gears all being centered in the same housing which serves to enclose
the live rear axle. The brakes are unusually powerful and are placed
in drums on the rear wheels. Suspension takes the form of full
elliptic springs in the rear and semi-elliptic springs forward. The
steering gear is of the worm-and-sector type with easy provision for
adjustment to take up wear, as is the case with every other part of
Pig. 27. Alco 4-Cylinder, 16-H. P. Taxicab.
the mechanism that is apt to develop looseness, while the complete
units may be readily dismounted in a short time and replaced. The
wheel base is 103 inches, wheels 32 inches in diameter, and tires 4
inches all round. Eight gallons of water are carried in the radiator,
one gallon of lubricant in the pressure oiler, and 14 gallons of fuel,
the economy of these cars being demonstrated by the fact that one
of them covered 22.7 miles on a gallon of gasoline in the economy
test held under the auspices of the Automobile Club of America in
1909.
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For a number of reasons, the principal one of which has doubtless
been the system of compensation, taxicab drivers have had a strong
incentive to speed their cars and much of the damage suffered by
taxicabs in service has risen from this cause. The designer of the
Alco taxicabs, Fig. 27, has accordingly specified a maximum speed
of 800 r. p. m. for the four-cylinder motor which forms the power
plant of these cabs. At this speed, it develops 16 horse-power, which
is ample for the purpose, and has the further advantage of not per-
mitting the cab itself to be driven at a speed exceeding 20 miles an
Fig. 28. Franklin IS-H. P. Taxicab— 1910 Model.
hour. This is the same motor that is employed on the Alco 3-ton
truck, but in the latter case it is speeded higher and develops
24 horse-power. In both cases, the motor speed is automatically
controlled by a throttling governor that cannot be tampered with by
the driver. A Bosch high-tension magento is employed for the igni-
tion, while lubrication is by splash, the supply being constantly
replenished by a force-feed oiler. A sliding gear transmission of the
selective type provides three forward speeds and reverse, final drive
being by propeller shaft to a live rear axle of special design for cab
work. Semi-elliptic springs are used forward and a three-member
platform suspension in the rear. The wheel base is 104 inches, gauge
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55 inches, while the tire equipment consists of 32-inch by 4-inch
pneumatics all round. The weight of the complete car is 3,100
pounds.
The Franklin taxicab, shown in Fig. 28, has as its motive power
a four-cylinder, 3f-inch by 4-inch motor, rated at 18 horse-power, and
cooled by a flywheel suction fan, as described in connection with the
light trucks of the same make. In fact, the chassis is practically
the same throughout, its dimensions being modified to suit the
dianged conditions of service. The ratio of gear reduction on the
Fig. 29. Aitas 2-Cycle Taxicab.
direct drive is raised to 4.5 to 1 which gives the car speeds in excess
of 20 miles an hour. All on, the weight is but 2,250 pounds, so that
the tire equipment of 30-inch by 4-inch quick detachable pneumatics,
front and rear, is ample.
The standardization of a chassis and power equipment for various
forms of light to medium commercial service as shown by the American
and Franklin trucks and taxicabs, is also to be found in the Atlas
taxicab shown in Fig. 29. This is fitted with the same two-
cylinder, 20-horse-power, two-cycle engine as that described in con-
nection with the Altas delivery wagons. Owing to the extreme short-
ness of the motor, only a small hood is required and ample space is
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allowed for the driver without the necessity of increasing the wheel
base to accommodate a good sized landaulet body. Three-quarter
elliptic springs are employed for the suspension in the rear, this,
apart from the difference in dimensions and the fitting of pneumatic
tires, constituting the only change of importance between the speci-
fications of the cab and the delivery wagon. As shewn in the illus-
trations of both the Franklin and Atlas taxicabs, it is customary to
fit these vehicles with an individual driver's seat, the latter being on
the left-hand side, in order to provide acconmiodation for a trunk or
other baggage. A folding seat gives acconmiodation for an extra
passenger when the space is not utilized for baggage.
QASOLINB DBLIVBRY WAQON
It will be found on a brief examination of the subject that this
is a far more comprehensive heading than would appear at first
sight, as it includes everything from the little three-wheeler up to
the type known as the light truck but which is, in reality, also a
delivery wagon with an open platform, or stake type of body. The
range of carrying capacity is from one or two hundred pounds up to
one ton, or slightly more, as many delivery wagons and light trucks
are built with a load capacity of 2,500 pounds, or even 3,000 pounds.
Package Delivery Motorcycle. At the lower end of the range
is to be found a hybrid type, consisting of all the elements of a
motorcycle, minus the front wheel, for which is substituted a pack-
age-carrying box of light construction mounted on two wheels.
This, of course, does not represent any closer approach to a true
type of commercial vehicle than does the touring car chassis fitted
with a second-hand landaulet body and a taximeter represent a
practical and eflScient taxicab. The motive power of this hybrid
consists of a 2- to 4-horse-power, single-cylinder, air-cooled motor
of the four-cycle type, driving the single rear wheel by a chain and
having but one speed. As the entire machine weighs only a few hun-
dred pounds, it is readily pushed backward, and so has no need of
a reverse, while the power provided is ample and there is no necessity
for a change-speed gear. It is started by pedaling and stopped simply
by shutting off the ignition current, a coaster brake such as is used
on bicycles and motorcycles being suflSciently powerful for all needs.
The package body is of the lightest possible construction and its load-
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 53
carrying capacity is little more than nominal where weight is concerned.
It is naturally intended merely for the quick delivery of comparatively
snmll and very light packages, and in this r61e has proved successful
to a limited extent. Low initial cost as well as the extremely econom-
ical expense of operation and maintenance are, of course, its chief
advantages, and these naturally recommend it to the small shop-
keeper. On the other hand, it has so many disadvantages that it is
safe to say, its use is not at all apt to become general, even in this
limited field. Both the rider and the mechanism are entirely exposed
to the weather, and the machines, at least as built thus far, have not
been designed with a view to commercial service.
Standard Delivery Requirements. Before taking up a description
of the different examples of gasoline delivery wagons as an illustration
of the various angles from which solutions of the problem presented
by this highly important branch of commercial service have been
attempted, it may be well to briefly summarize some of the principal
requirements of the problem itself. They are exactly those which
have been dwelt upon as being essential to the successful taxicab.
The object to be attained is the same — a vehicle of the most reliable,
eflBcient, and economical type and so simple as to be readily operated
by an unskilled driver, the only difference really being in the nature
of the load to be carried.
Simplicity of Design. This naturally involves the designing
of the power plant and the drive as independent units, and more
particularly the former, in order that the entire vehicle may not be
placed out of commission, simply through some minor defection,
which, though of relatively small importance, involves considerable
delay in its repair. All functions of the motor must be as nearly
automatic as it is possible to make them, little or nothing in the way
of adjustments being left to the discretion of the driver. Ease and
simplicity of operation must characterize the clutch and the gear-
set, and every part must be of as durable construction as is possible
to make it. In fact, the design and construction must be such that
the driver's duties are confined almost wholly to starting, stopping,
and steering, the vehicle running all day without further need of
attention to any of its adjustments than can be given by the skilled
attendants at the station before starting out. The ignition system
is accordingly self-contained and independent, operating with a fixed
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point of firing, and may only be retarded for starting; lubricaticm is
entirely automatic and a pump is generally dispensed with, the cir-
culation of the cooling water being on the thermo-siphon principle
with an ample volume of water to secure adequate cooling under the
most severe conditions. Simplicity has been attained in high degree
by the adoption of a planetary type of gear set for the transmission,
and this form, while slightly less efficient as compared with the
sliding type, has proven very successful in the hands of unskilled
drivers, as it cannot be abused. So far as the remainder of the chassis
is concerned, solidity of construction within necessarily defined limits
of weight, is naturally the chief characteristic, as very liberal pro-
vision for durability is imperative in view of the racking stresses im-
posed by heavy loads being carried on solid tires over rough pave-
ments at high speeds, as compared with the horse-drawn vehicle.
Load Efficiency. While dealing with the question of weight,
it may be well to point out the fallacies that have obtained on this
point in the past, as this item alone has been directly responsible for
the failure of many of the early attempts. The majority of the types
were entirely too light for the service for which they were designed
and simply went to pieces under the pounding. In the attempt to
gain the highest possible load efficiency, and this sometimes actually
exceeded 100 per cent, all other considerations were overlooked,
with the inevitable result. That this is not something belonging
entirely to the erroneous practice of an already forgotten past, is
strikingly evidenced by the fac^ that the writer overheard the general
manager of one of the largest motor-building companies in the coun-
try, seriously discussing the design of a delivery wagon to carry a load
of 1,000 pounds on a weight of 1,000 pounds. The discussion took
place within the past year. The vehicle was to be equipped with a
four-cylinder, four-cycle, vertical motor of the high-speed type, capable
of delivering 16 to 20 porse-hower, while the vehicle itself was to have
a speed of 20 miles to 22 miles per hour on the level. It was pro-
posed to turn out a large number of these vehicles for milk-delivery
service, the assumption being that as this would confine them to city
streets, the going would always be smooth and practically level.
On paper, the design appeared to be practical, but had these
delivery wagons actually been built as proposed, they would have
added but another failure to the long line that had preceded them
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from the same cause, except that it would have been more wiilespread-
ing in its efTects owing to the great number it was contemplated con-
structing. No great amount of engineering skill is necessary to per-
ceive their shortcomings. Carrying a load of 1,000 pounds on a total
vehicle weight of 1,000 pounds, means an eflBciency of 100 per cent,
and as there is usually a tendency to over- rather than undeivload
vehicles in service, this would be still further increased. It is axiomatic
in engineering that any such dose approach to perfection is not con-
sistent with durability. In other words, it is not practical to attempt
to achieve such a high percentage of efficiency, where the limitation
of total weight is so small. For instance, it is not difficult to construct
a truck weighing two tons, that will be capable of transporting a load
ofiwo tons, but where the former limit is fixed at half a ton, it is an
entirely different matter.
Furthermore, it is a gross fallacy to proceed on the assumption
that a vehicle intended for strictly urban service may be built much
lighter owing to the smoothness of the pavement While asphalted
or wood-block paved streets are now in the majority in large cities,
they are hot all smooth by any means. Holes, car tracks, and pro-
tuberances caused by the excavations for pipes and the extremely
careless relaying of the pavement at such places, give rise to obstruc-
tions that are quite as serious in the stresses they impose on the
vehicle, as any to be found on suburban or country roads adapted
to the use of the commercial vehicle. A load-carrying efficiency of
66J per cent would approxunately represent the maximum practically
obtainable with such a light vehicle. In other words, the vehicle
to have a useful load capacity of 1,000 pounds, should weigh at least
1,500 pounds, and 1,600 to 1,800 pounds would be more consistent
with the high degree. of reliability and freedom from breakdown
that are so essential in any commercial service. As the size of the
vehicle increased, these limits would naturally approach one another
more and more closely, until, as already stated, an efficiency of 100
per cent, or very close to it, would be reached in the 2-ton truck and
above, as will be noted by some of the weights given later.
As weight increases, speed for the same power must naturally
decrease proportionately, so that while the same high-speed type of
four-cylinder, vertical motor that has become standard on the pleasure
car is frequently to be met with in conmiercial truck design — in fact.
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manufacturers of pleasure and commercial chassis often use the
identical motor on both — the ratio of speed change is much greater.
In pleasure car practice, it is customary to make the gear ratio on
direct drive, or high speed, 3^ to 1 for touring and enclosed cars, and
3 or 2i to 1 on high-powered runabouts, i, e., when driving direct,
the motor makes 3i revolutions for every turn of the road wheeb.
As the normal speed of the motor ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 r. p. m.,
or even higher in the case of some of the smaller powers, this gives
a speed range of from 4 to more than 60 miles an hour. On the first
and second speeds, the gear ratio is usually about 5 and 7^ or 8 to 1,
the reverse often being the same as the first speed, and in some cases
a little slower, say 8^ or 9 to 1.
When it is considered that on a weight of 3,000 to 3,600 pounds,
the seven-passenger touring car seldom carries a load of much more
than 1,000 pounds — seven passengers, average 150 pounds = 1,050
pounds — ^it will be apparent that its load efficiency does not exceed
33^ per cent and is usually much less. Furthermore, owing to in-
ability to run, except at short intervals, at anything like an efficient
motor speed, the fuel consumption for the load carried, is very high.
As load-carrying efficiency and economy in operation are two very
important features of commercial car design, it is evident that to
realize them, pleasure car practice must be radically departed from.
High Efficiency on Low Speed. Owing to the manner in which
the internal combustion motor develops its energy — i. e., by means
of intermittent impulses or blows of high unit value, which must
be absorbed and "smoothed out" so to speak, by the heavy bal-
ance wheel, in order to be available — ^its torque, or pulling power,
is very low at low-turning speeds. A motor designed to have an output
of 30 horse-power at a speed of 1,200 r. p. m., will not deliver 15
horse-power at 600 r. p. m. In fact, the efficiency falls off so rapidly
with a decrease in the speed, that a drop of 50 per cent in the latter
means a decrease of 75 per cent or more in the power developed, so
that at 600 r. p. m., the 30-horse-power motor would probably have
an output not exceeding 8 to 10 horse-power. Ability to develop
the maximum amount of power over the greatest speed range is
known as the flexibility of the motor, and the internal combustion
motor has been vastly improved in this respect during the past decade.
However, as this is an inherent disadvantage that cannot be entirely
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overcome, provision for a change in the speed from the motor to the
rear wheels must always be necessary, and it is essential that this be
calculated so as to permit of the motor running as close to its normal
speed as possible at all times, regardless of the speed at which the
vehicle itself is traveling.
In view of the far greater discrepancy .between the speed at
which the motor must necessarily turn in order to be efficient, and
the permissible maximum speeds of the vehicle as compared with the
pleasure car, the problem of adapting the speed changes to the re-
quirements is much more difficult. This is further complicated by
the fact that the torque of a motor also falls off when its speed greatly
exceeds normal. In other words, its efficiency drops when the motor
is allowed to race, in almost the same proportion as it does when the
motor is run below its normal speed. Conunercial vehicle speeds
must necessarily be low, not alone to permit of the transportation of
heavy loads, but also in order that the car may be able to ascend
grades when fully loaded, so that the gear ratio must be calculated
to prevent racing on the first and second speeds, as otherwise the
starting ability of the vehicle will be low, and it will be necessary
to race the motor in hill climbing with consequent overheating.
As racing the motor much beyond its normal speed also imposes
great inertia stresses on all the moving parts, the importance of avoid-
ing a ratio of gear change that will involve it on any of the speeds
will be manifest. Improvements in motor design wjiich have made
it possible to reduce the normal speeds of motors ranging from 35
to 60 horse-power as low as 800 to 950 r. p. m. have done much to
simplify this problem, so that the car with a motor specially designed
for commercial vehicle work has an advantage over one using a tour-
ing car motor. This is especially true in the case of the heavier
trucks in which the maximum permissible speed of travel seldom
exceeds 10 miles to 12 miles per hour.
Pleasure-Car Design vs. Commercial, Consideration of the
foregoing will throw considerable light on one of the chief differences
between the pleasure car and the conunercial vehicle of the gasoline-
driven type. It will be apparent that instead of a gear ratio of 3i
or 4 to 1, the highest available on the direct drive will form a close
approach to the first speed of the pleasure car, or about 8 to 1, with
a corresponding decrease for the starting and hill-climbing speeds.
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bringing these as low as 22 to 27 turns of the motor for each revolution
of the driving wheels, the actual ratio naturally varying with the size
and type of vehicle, as controlled by the load to be transported.
Delivery wagons are accordingly designed with speeds of ap-
proximately 4 and 12 miles an hour on first and high, where provided
with but two gear changes, and of 4, 8, and 15 to 18 miles, where
three speeds are available. However, as the delivery wagon is usually
designed to carry a comparatively light load, advantage is taken of
this to employ a planetary type of change-speed gear. This type is
greatly to be preferred on light vehicles in'view of the unskilled class
of drivers usually employed, as it is not subject to abuse as is the slid-
ing gear type, but it does not lend itself to a three-speed gear as
this involves excessive complication. While ordinarily employed
on light delivery wagons, it has also been used very successfully on
trucks as heavy as 10-ton capacity.
Types. Brush. As there is a wide diversity of types of delivery
wagons, a study of their design and construction as exemplified by
various makes will serve to give a clearer idea of the manner in
which the different problems that arise have been met, than any
generalization possibly could. At present, the first step above the
motorcycle tri-wheeler with its maximum capacity of about 250
pounds, is the Brush 500-pound delivery wagon. Fig. 30, employed
by the Federal government for mail carrying, in which it has proven
very successful. .The motive power of these small cars consists of
a single-cylinder, vertical, high-speed motor rated at 7 horse-power.
It is of the four-cycle type and water-cooled, and as is the case in
pleasure car practice, the entire power-plant is carried forward under
a bonnet, which makes it very accessible. Owing to the short wheel
base of the car, the driver's seat is directly back of the bonnet — or
where the dash would ordinarily be placed — ^necessitating the loca-
tion of the steering gear right over the forward axle, as shown, the
brake pedal being on the frame and directly back of the steering
column. Instead of being centered directly on the chassis, the bonnet
is slightly to the right, providing ample space for the driver's feet
at the left, where the control is placed. Left-hand control, as it is
termed, L e,, the placing of the driver's seat and operating levers at
the left instead of at the right, as has been almost universal heretofore,
has numerous advantages for commercial work. As practically all
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the driving is done in traffic, the practice is becoming more or less
general on commercial cars, the taxicabs being the first to employ it
to any extent, though one or two pleasure cars have been thus
equipped for the past two or three years.
The transmission of the Brush consists of a two-speed planetary
gear and a countershaft from which the drive to the rear wheek is
taken by side chains, as shown. The suspension takes the form of
four heavy helical springs, the action of which is controlled by means
of a special form of shock absorber, which prevents the recoil of the
Fig. 30. Brush SOO-Pound Delivery Wagon.
springs from setting up the continuous jouncing characteristic of
this type of spring, and also serves to check the lateral swaying to
which the body would otherwise be subject. One of these shock
absorbers is placed at each spring. Both front and rear axle are of
tubular construction. The total weight of the car is 950 pounds,
and as it has a load-carrying capacity of 500 pounds, its efficiency
exceeds 50 per cent, which is high for such a small vehicle.
Holsman, As the capacity of the usual horse-drawn delivery
wagon seldom exceeds half a ton, there are naturally a great number
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of power-driven vehicles for the same purpose that are rated with a
carrying capacity of 1,000 pounds, though the majority of them are
Fig. 31. Holsman 12-H. P., 2-CyIinder, Engine and Trftnaqiission^
actually capably of transporting more than this — ^in some cases up
to 1,500 pounds. A tj^ that embodies many special features is to
be found in the Holsman. This is equippied with a two-cylinder
opposed, horizontal, air-cooled engine, rated at 12 horse-power.
Fig. 32. Holsman High- Wheeled Motor Wagon for Country Use.
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It is of the four-cycle type and drives by means of silent chains
to a countershaft, as shown in Fig. 31. From the latter, the final
drive to the rear wheels is taken by means of steel and manila cables
running in grooved pulleys, this construction being illustrated in the
complete view oT the vehicle. Fig. 32. The suspension consists of
full elliptic springs at all four points. High wheels and solid axles
are employed, in fact, the whole construction is a close approach to
the "horseless" type that was first evolved in automobile design.
The control is centered on a vertical column at the right, steering
being accomplished by means of a hand lever.
Black, A type that has been evolved directly from the first
attempts at pleasure-car design in this country, is illustrated in the
¥ig. 33. Chassis of Black 12-H. F., Light DeUvery Wagon.
plan view of the chassis of the Black 12-horse-power, light delivery
wagon, Fig. 33. Except for the employment of an air-cooled motor,
this is typical of the arrangement used on the majority of early
two-cylinder cars. The engine is placed under the body and parallel
with the frame, the planetary gearset being carried directly on an
extension of the crank shaft. From the latter, the drive is by means
of a single chain to a countershaft and double chains to the rear wheels.
The frame is of angle iron, securely braced, and full elliptic springs
and solid axles are employed, most of such parts, wheels included,
coming directly from the stock of the wagon parts manufacturer.
The construction of the motor is shown in Fig. 34, and except for
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detailed changes, this is, in general, typical of the majority of two-
cylinder opposed motors of the horizontal type, whether air or water-
cooled.
Fig. 34. Black Double-Opposed 12-H. P., to 18-H. P., Air-Ck>oled Engine.
ReHabU'Dayton. An improvement on the foregoing, in that the
working parts are much more accessible, is shown in the plan view
of the chassis of the Reliable-Dayton delivery wagon. Fig. 35. The
motor is placed transversely at the forward end of the pressed steel
Pig. 35. Ohassis of Reliable-Dayton 750-Pound Wagon.
frame. It is water-cooled and is rated at 20 horse-power. The
radiator, of the horizontal tubular type, is hung below the frame,
the power-plant being protected by a sloping bonnet, which, when
raised, permits of direct access to all parts of the engine. A band
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type of clutch is employed, with shaft drive to a countershaft on which
are combined the two-speed sliding gear and differential, these as
well as the driving shafts being encased in a light but substantial
housing. Final drive is by side chains. Two sets of brakes are
employed, operating in drums on the driving wheels. The suspen-
sion consists of full elliptic spri^igs at the rear and semi-elliptic for-
ward.
Cartercar, A radical departure from any of the foregoing types
is to be found in the Cartercar delivery wagon. Fig. 36. While this
employs the standard form of two-cylinder, horizontal opposed, four-
cycle, water-cooled motor placed transversely forward, the trans-
Fig. 37. Cartercar Power Plant and Transmission.
mission of the power is accomplished by friction. The details of
this mechanism will be apparent from the accompanying illustration,
Fig. 37. Through the medium of a short shaft and a flexible
coupling at the flywheel end, the motor drives a large disk, running
parallel to and in the same plane as the flywheel. Another disk or
wheel is mounted to run at right angles to the motor-driven disk,
pressing against the latter and traveling across its face, as con-
trolled by the hand lever shown. This wheel is carried on a counter-
shaft on which is also secured the small or forward sprocket of a
single chain drive. The large sprocket and differential are mounted
on the rear axle, the chain itself being encased to protect it from dirt
and water. This chain drive is mounted to one side of the large disk.
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so that the transmission wheel may be moved across its entire face,
both the speed and the direction of rotation depending upon the
point at which the wheel makes contact with the disk, the center of
the disk naturally representing a neutral point The periphery of
the wheel is equipped with a special friction material, which may be
replaced at a nominal expense when worn. A transmission of this
type provides a wide range of speeds, both- forward and reverse,
with a very gradual and easy increase or decrease, it being possible
to go into reverse while the car is still moving forward, though this
is also a feature of the planetary type of change-speed gear. The
view of the power-plant and transmission also illustrates the con-
struction of the internal expanding brakes and the rear axle.
In operation, all speed changes are obtained by means of the
single hand lever which serves to shift the wheel across the disk.
The car is started or stopped by depressing or releasing a pedal on
the footboard.
Van Dyke. The Van Dyke 1,000-pound delivery wagon rep-
resents another instance in which friction transmission is employed,
but in a totally different manner. The two-cylinder, horizontal,
oppoi^ed motor comprising the power-plant, is placed at the left-hand
side of the chassis, forward, and is carried parallel with the frame
on two transverse members. These cross pieces also serve to carry
two bearings which support a horizontal shaft on which the sliding
friction wheel is mounted. The flywheel of the motor also serves
as the friction disk. Drive is by propeller shaft to a live type of rear
axle, which also embodies the differential. As the car is intended
for low speeds, the gear ratio of the drive at the rear axle is 6 to 1,
which, with the speed changes available in the friction transmission,
permits of driving it at anything from half a mile an hour up to the
maximum, which will probably not exceed 15 miles an hour.
Randolph and Lambert, The Randolph and Lambert vehicles
also employ a friction type of transmission designed on the same
general lines. That of the Randolph 1,500-pound delivery wagon
is illustrated in Fig. 38, the method of sliding the transmitting wheel
on the splines of the countershaft, as well as the manner of fitting it
with a special friction facing, both being plainly evident. The disk,
driven by the motor, which in this case is also of the twin-cylinder,
horizontal type placed transversely across the forward end of the
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chassis, is also apparent. Final drive is by double side chains,
according to standard practice on such vehicles. The friction type
of transmission on the delivery wagons of this size has lately been
discontinued, a gear drive being substituted. The same makers
build a slightly larger vehicle with 2,000-pound capacity in either
the friction or gear drive. The friction transmission does not lend
Fig. 38. Randolph Delivery Chassis Showing Friction Drive.
itself to heavier vehicles and has seldom been employed on anything
much lai^er than a 1-ton or 1^-ton wagon.
Friction Drive, The friction type of transmission is not gen-
erally regarded with favor by engineers, as is shown by the compara-
tively-small number of vehicles in which it is employed. As already
mentioned, this type seldom exceeds one ton in capacity, but in this
r6le the friction transmission appears to bear out to a very large extent
the promise of its very favorable theory. The area of actual contact
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•
between the disk and the power transmitting wheel is little more than
a short line, and it would accordingly not seem to be capable of trans-
mitting a great deal of power — ^particularly the effort due to starting
a load on a grade or out of a mud hole — but the fact that the Carter-
car vehicles have shown themselves capable of ascending grades as
steep as 50 per cent, and of being stopped and restarted on such a
terrific incline, would appear to dispose of this effectively. In actual
service, grades as bad as 20 per cent are very rarely encountered, as a
15 per cent grade represents an exceedingly steep incline. The
success of the friction-driven cars now on the market makes it appar-
ent that this type is to be reckoned with as a factor, its low cost
and absolute simplicity making it of great importance where the
unskilled driver is concerned.
Most of the vehicles thus far described, with such exceptions as
the Randolph and possibly one or two others, are really nothing more
than pleasure car chassis with a delivery body mounted on them,
but as they have been designed with a view to simplicity of construc-
tion and economy of operation, they have proven effective in both
idles. Doubtless the day is not far distant, when, with the aid of
readily interchangeable bodies, the small merchant will find it prof-
itable to use his car for both business and pleasure, by simply sub-
stituting a touring body in the evening or on Sundays and holidays.
This was proposed in England several years ago, and a system of
interchangeable bodies, permitting of a change from one to the other
in half an hour or less, was devised to make it feasible. There
appears to be no reason why the use of the machine in this double
capacity should not be found entirely practical.
Special Types. For the hard and unremitting service called for
by department stores and other large business houses, it is naturally
quite as much of an advantage to have a vehicle specially designed
for delivery purposes, as is the case with the heavier trucks. Such
cars are run constantly and are, for a large part of the time, loaded
to their rated capacity. It is nothing unusual for them to average
10 to 14 hours a day, practically every working day of the year that
they are in use, and service of this nature does not allow for a great
deal more idle time than is actually necessary for the daily washing
and overhauling required to keep them up to a high standard of
efficiency.
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Autocar. The Autocar open-body delivery wagon. Fig. 39,
affords an excellent example of a vehicle designed especially for the
most severe business conditions. The motor is of the two-cylinder,
horizontal, opposed, four-cycle type, the cylinder dimensions being
4J-inch bore by 4J-inch stroke, and it is rated at 18 horse-power,
according to the standard set by the Association of Licensed Auto-
mobile Manufacturers (A. L. A. M.) controlling the Selden patent
The crank shaft is mounted on imported annular ball bearings which
not only add greatly to the efficiency of the motor as a whole, but do
away with the attention necessary to adjust plain bearings. This
construction, which is far more expensive than plain bearings, also
Pig. 39. Autocar Open Body Delivery Wagon.
reduces the number of parts which are subject to damage should
the driver neglect to provide sufficient oil, the lubrication system
otherwise being entirely automatic. Two flywheels are carried on
the crank shaft, the forward one having its blades cast staggered so
as to set up a strong current of air, thu3 eliminating the necessity
of a belt- or gearniriven fan, while the rear flywheel carries the clutch.
The importance of providing ample weight in the balance wheel
is something to which insufficient attention has been devoted in the
past, its influence upon the starting ability and smooth-running
qualities of the vehicle being extremely marked, especially where
a two-cylinder motor is employed. Both flywheels on the Autocar
motor are counterweigh ted, and this, supplemented by a careful
balance of all the reciprocating parts, makes an extremely smooth
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and quiet-nmning motor with unusual starting and grade climbing
ability for its size.
The crank case is split horizontally into two sections, the lower
half carrying the cylinders, crank shaft, cam shaft, and water pump,
while the upper half carries the push rod guides, the magneto, the
oiler, and a gear for driving the water pump. The magneto and
oiler are both driven through bevel gears and short shafts, reducing
the possibility of failure in these two highly important essentials —
ignition and lubrication — to a minimum. This upper section of
the crank case is readily removable, carrying its parts with it and
thus giving access to the crank-pin bearings without the necessity
of dismantling the m^tor. A Bosch magneto is employed with a fixed
firing point, thus taking this element of control out of the hands of
the driver. Lubrication is by a force-feed oiler delivering oil through
a sight feed to the crank case, from which the pistons, crank pins,
and main bearings are lubricated by splash. Both the magneto and
the lubricator are simply attached to the crank case by wing nuts
so as to be removable without the aid of tools. A hydraulic speed
regulator connected in the circulation of the cooling water, controls
a throttle placed in the intake manifold between the carbureter and
the cylinders, limiting the speed of the motor to 1,400 r. p. m. and
that of the vehicle to 18 miles to 20 miles per hour.
A patented floating ring clutch that has been developed on the
same make of pleasure cars and used for a number of years, constitutes
the first step in the transmission. It consists of a bronze floating
ring, lined with cork inserts on its inner face, and mounted on four
keys on the inside of the rim of the rear flywheel, thus rotating with
the latter. Two cast-iron rings, adapted to clamp the bronze ring
when the clutch is engaged, are mounted on the clutch shaft, which
extends into the transmission case. Engagement is accomplished
by a sliding trunnion and four toggle links, the motion of which is
checked by a dashpot and plunger. This insures gradual automatic
action, entirely free from jerk regardless of the care exercised by
the driver. The addition of small springs to the floating ring elimi-
nates all noise whether the clutch be engaged or not, while the arrange-
ment is such that adjustments can be easily and readily made.
The transmission housing is all one piece, except its cover plate,
and it has been so designed that all the shafts and gears may be
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removed without disturbing the housing itself. The shafts are large
and are carried on adjustable roller-bearings, while the gears have
broad faces and heavy teeth. Three speeds forward and one reverse
F'm. 40. Autocar Engine and Trmnamiasiom Mounted on Separate Sub-Frame.
are provided, lubrication being obtained by covering the shafts and
gears with a bath of semi-fluid oil.
Both front and rear axles have l)een designed especially to meet
FiK. 41. Autocar Enjfine and Transmission — Plan View.
the recjuirements of the heavy senice imposed upon them in carry-
ing the load on solid rubber tires. The front axle is of the tubular
type, with extra heavy yokes for the steering spindles, w^hich are made
integral with the spring saddles. Adjustable roller-bearings are
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employed in the wheel hubs. The rear axle is of the full floating
type with a double gear reduction. A bevel pinion at the end of the
propeller shaft meshes with a large bevel gear on a short transverse
shaft, from which the drive is transmitted to the differential case by
means of a pair of substantial spur gears. The bevel pinion shaft
and the jack shaft both run on adjustable roller bearings.
One of the chief features of advantage of the Autocar delivery
wagon is the mounting of the complete motor and transmission,
barring the rear axle, on an independent subframe, as shown in Fig.
Fig. 42. Autocar Complete Chassis.
40 and Fig. 41. In the illustration of the complete chassis, Fig. 42,
every part of the power plant is seen to be accessible by lifting the
bonnet, while tlie complete unit, as shown separately, may be removed
from the chassis and replaced by another. The plan view of the
chassis, Fig. 43, shows the relative location of all the essential parts^
including the gasoline tank which is placed transversely on the main
frame directly under the driver's seat. The frame is of pressed steel,
perfectly rectangular and heavily reinforced. Two sets of brakes
act on drums attached to the driving wheels, while the suspension
consists of double-elliptic springs in the rear and semi-elUptic springs
placed forward directly under the motor.
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Grabowsky. The Grabowsky power wagon is another specially
designed type having similarly advantageous features of accessibility
and interchangeability, the entire power plant and transmission being
Fig. 43. Autocar C!omplete Chassis — Plan View.
an independent unit which is designed to slide on raib on the chassis
frame, so as to be readily installed or removed. The simplicity of
Fig. 44. Grabowsky Power Wagon, Showing Sliding Mounting for Power Plant.
this operation may be judged from the illustration, Fig. 44, which
clearly shows the channel members upon which the motor and trans-
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mission gear are mounted, as well as the rails of similar section placed
in an inverted position on the chassis, on which they are designed to
slide. By means of the horse mounted on casters and shown in the
foreground, the motor and its accompanying essentials may be slid
off the chassis and replaced by another in a very short time. This
is a great advantage to any delivery system employing a number of
vehicles, as with an extra equipment of one complete power plant for
every eight or ten cars in ser\'ice, it is seldom, if ever, necessary to
retire a machine from service to make repairs to the motor or trans-
mission, as the extra unit may be temporarily installed in any one of
Fig. 46. Grabowsky Chassis Showing Simple Construction.
the cars needing attention of this nature. This is on the same prin-
ciple as the keeping of three horses to insure the steady service of
a single two-horse wagon, six for two team wagons, and so on; except
that the percentage of extra motive power necessary in the case of
horse-drawn vehicles is much greater than with power wagons.
The Grabowsky car shown is much heavier than the delivery types
previously illustrated — in fact, it is a truck chassis, but is shown in
this connection following the Autocar as a further example of a special
design involving much the same principles.
Fig. 45 serves to illustrate the ready accessibility of the various
essentials of the motor by merely lifting the short hood. It
may be noticed in this case that the radiator is carried above the
motor. The force-feed lubricator will be seen forward just under
the end of the crank shaft, while the direct-current generator for
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supplying the ignition current is bolted to the right-hand rail
of the sliding motor sopport; the ignition timer is mounted vertically,
directly over the crank shaft. The valves and their operating
mechanism, the spark plugs, carbureter, and electrical and water
connections are all within easy reach, most of them being mounted
directly on top of the motor. Fig. 46 illustrates the great simplicity
of the chassis as a whole. The drive from the planetary gearset,
which is shown in part section in Fig. 47, is by shaft to the differential,
mounted at the center of the countershaft near the rear. From this,
the drive to the rear wheels is taken by side chains in the conventional
Fig. 47. Planetary Gearset Shown in Part Section.
manner. Internal expanding brakes are designed to act upon the
drums which also carry the driving sprockets.
Rapid, The Rapid cars, while specially designed in many forms
for commercial service, and in which they have proven unusually
successful, are characterized more by features of design that have
been conventionalized in the two-cylinder pleasure car. Like the
Autocar and the Grabowsky, the Rapid one-ton chassis is equipped
with a two-cylinder motor of the same general type, the cylinders of
which measure 5 inch by 5 inch, giving it a rating of 24 horse-power.
It is placed parallel with the frame and under the body, the crank
shaft carrying a two-speed planetary gearset through which the
power is transmitted by a single chain drive to a countershaft, from
which it is taken by means of side chains to the rear wheels in the
usual way. While placed under the body, the motor is readily
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accessible from the side of the car, due to the somewhat greater height
of the frame. The radiator is carried forward and serves as a dash,
while the suspension consists of a half-platform unit composed of
three semi-elliptic springs in the rear, and two straight semi-elliptic
springs forward. Solid axles of If-inch square section are employed,
and it will be noted from this and bther details of the construction
that the vehicle is unusually subtsantial for its size so that its rating
of one-ton capacity is merely nominal. The wheels run on Timken
roller bearings and may be either of the usual artillery type or what
Fig. 48. Chassis of Rapid Delivery Wagon.
is known as an indestriictible wheel, made of heavy, stamped sheet
steel, which not only has the advantage of great strength but is easier
to keep clean than the ordinary spoked type. Internal-expanding
hub brakes are employed on the rear wheels and are operated by a
hand lever, and as is usual with a planetary gearset, the reverse
may be employed as a transmission brake. The wheels are 32 inches
in diameter and are fitted with 3J-inch solid-rubber, endless tires.
By increasing the dimensions of the chassis throughout, and equipping
it with a 5i-inch by 5-inch motor, rated at 30 horse-power, it is listed
as a l^-ton to 2-ton car with a number of different types of bodies.
One of the Rapid cars has the distinction of being the only com-
mercial vehicle to have climbed to the sunmiit of Pike's Peak.
A chassis of the one-ton Rapid delivery wagon is shown in Fig. 48.
Types with Two-Cycle Motor. Owing to its great simplicity
and lack of small parts, the two-cycle type of motor would certainly
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appear to hold great promise for the commercial field. It is far
cheaper to build than the four-cycle type, as, with the exception
of the crank shaft, connecting rods, and bearings, a two-cycle motor
is composed wholly of iron castings. While not quite as economical
in operation as the four-cycle where fuel consumption is concerned,
the difference is hardly of suflBcient moment to have an important
bearing, and may be compensated for, to a large extent, by the lesser
number of cylinders required, owing to the more frequent impulses.
Its entire absence of valves and the numerous small parts which their
operation involves makes it a particularly advantageous type to place
in the hands of the ordinary driver, as, outside of the carbureter and
ignition, there is absolutely nothing in the way of adjustments that
the driver can tinker with. Owing to the fact that the four-cycle
motor had none of the short-comings of the two, the latter was never
considered seriously in the early days and almost entire attention
was devoted to the development of the former, and, except for the
efforts of a few pioneers with the courage of their convictions, it has
not had an opportunity to demonstrate of what it is capable, either
in the commercial or the pleasure-car field.
There are a few makers building two-cycle commercial cars —
the whole field, in fact, both pleasure and commercial, can be
accounted for on the fingers of one hand. Consequently, the two-
cycle motor is still in an unsettled state — ^it has not yet reached that
stage in its progress where it can be regarded as having been placed
on a standard basis, as practically every maker is building a motor
with special features of his own and no two are exactly alike, while
many differ radically. But the promise it holds of future develop-
ment may be gauged from its performance for many years past in
the marine field, as there are thousands of small two-cycle motors
in use in dories, oyster boats, and fishing boats that are put to the
hardest class of business service day after day and in all kinds of
weather. The two-cycle motor is also employed on a very large
and constantly increasing number of motor boats for pleasure use.
While marine sendee demands the sturdiest of construction, the
speed requirements are low, the ordinary two-cycle marine motor
being designed to develop its power at a normal r. p. m. rate seldom
exceeding 600 turns per minute This naturally involves a weight
per horse-power that is prohibitive for automobile use, the usual
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6- to 8-horse-power, two-cycle, marine motor weighing quite as much
or more than a 30-horse-power, four-cycle, automobile type. The
reason for this will be apparent upon a consideration of the reference
to the flexibility of the motor and its power output as influenced by
its speed, Page 56. Weight is naturally not as objectionable in
a boat as on a vehicle which must transport itself and its load on rubber
tires. No little difficulty was experienced at the outset in the attempt
to improve the two-cycle motor by increasing its speed in order to
cut down its weight per horse-power, and the action of the motors
under experiment was so erratic and unsatisfactory, particularly
where an increase in their power output at the higher speeds was
concerned, that many of the investigators gave up the task and went
back to the four-cycle type. It is almost beyond the power of the
human mind to grasp the rapidity of the sequence with which the
different functions take place in a four-cycle motor when nmning
at speeds which were thought utterly impossible twenty years ago,
but which are now conMnon. When turning over at 1,800 r. p. m.,
as many small motors do, they are making 30 revolutions per second.
This means that 120 distinct operations mu^t be gone through every
second, i. e,, drawing in of the charge, compressing, firing, and ex-
hausting it. For the accomplishment of each, there is thus allowed
exactly tJt ot sl second. In fact, it has never quite been figured
out how the various operations can follow one another so rapidly
without conflicting — ^just how the burning gas of one chaise can be
so completely expelled as not to ignite the fresh gas of the charge
following it. 1,800 r. p. m. is not an extreme speed by any means,
as motors have been successfully operated at a rate as high as 2,200
r. p. m. or more, though the average automobile motor is not designed
to run much above 1,500 r. p. m. and the tendency is naturally to
lower this rather than to increase it.
When a two-cycle motor is running at 600 r. p. m., it is carry-
ing out as many functions as the four-cycle motor running at double
that speed, so that to design a two-cycle motor capable of a speed of
1,800 r. p. m. it is necessary to so arrange its intake and exhaust that
the gases may be successfully transferred \\ith the small time allow-
ance of Tj-J-g- of a second. This explains why the first attempts were so
disappointing, as the fresh charge was either fired by its predecessor
before reaching the combustion chamber, or was so small as to be
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productive of practically no power, this decreasing, instead of in-
creasing, as the speed became greater. The investigations were
continued, however, with the result that there are now several cars
of this type that have been on the market for some time, while others
are still being experimented with, and it is safe to say that the two-
cycle motor will in the future become a factor of constantly increas-
ing importance, particularly for commercial use.
Adas. The extreme simplicity its employment makes possible
is strikingly illustrated by the plan view of the Adas delivery wagon
shown in Fig. 49. As the two-cycle motor produces a power impulse
for every turn of the crank shaft, instead of every other revolution,
as in the four-cycle motor, it is natural to assume, that, given the
Fig. 49. Chassis of Atlas Delivery Wagon.
same size cylinders, the power output will be exactly double, or even
better, and this is a claim generally put forth by the builders of two-
cycle engines. It doubtless would be true were it possible to scavenge
the cylinders of the burned charge as thoroughly as is done in the
four-cycle, and to inspire as large a proportion of fresh gas to the
volume of the cylinder, as the latter effects. This, however, is just
where the greatest difficulty in the development of the two-cycle lies.
The fresh gas must be inspired and compressed on the up stroke,
fire<I and exhausted on the next succeeding down stroke, and with
the exceedingly limited time-element per function that this necessi-
tates, it has .been found practically impossible to clear the combus-
tion chamber of the burnt gases to anything like the degree that is
effected in the four-cycle with its intervening idle stroke. The result
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is that the fresh charge is always mixed with a greater or less pro-
portion of the burnt gas already in the cylinder, with a consequent
decrease in the effectiveness of each of the power impulses as com-
pared with the four-cycle type. Owing to the rapidity with which
they follow one another, however, the power output of the two-cycle
cylinder is greater than that of a four of the same dimensions, par-
ticularly at the more desirable lower speeds.
It is accordingly possible to employ two or three two-cycle cylin-
ders, in place of the usual four-cylinder, four-cycle, which not only
further lowers the initial cost, but also serves to cut down maintenance
charges. As the power impulses are consecutive in each cylinder
during each revolution, a 180-degree crank shaft may be used in the
two-cylinder and a 120-degree crank shaft in the three-cylinder,
giving practically perfect mechanical as well as impulse balance,
thus largely eliminating the destructive effects of vibration. This
accounts for the two-cylinder motor shown on the Atlas delivery
wagon chassis just referred to, the same motor also being employed
on the Atlas taxicabs. The frequency of the power impulses also
makes it possible to reduce the size and weight of the balance wheel
necessary for a given power.
Just back of the flj-wheel, Fig. 49, is shown the planetary change-
speed gear minus its bands and operating connections. Final drive
is by propeller shaft, with a universal joint at each end, to a live rear
axle. The frame is of pressed steel, of the usual channel section,
with transverse members to stiffen it and support the motor and
transmission gear. Suspension takes the form of three-quarter
elliptic springs in the rear and semi-elliptic forward. Pneumatic
tires are fitted, this, however, being optional with the purchaser.
As the car is rated at 1,000-pound capacity the pneumatics may, of
course, be successfully employed with advantage both to the machine
and its speed. The appearance of the complete car, fitted with a
closed type of delivery body, is apparent in Fig. 50, which also illus-
trates the control, this taking the form of pedals for the low and
reverse speeds, and the brake and a short lever for the high speed,
as has become practically standard practice in connection with the
planetary gear. The Atlas motor is distinguished by the employ-
ment of revolving ports in the crank case, which control the admis-
sion of the charge. The latter is compressed in the crank case, as high a
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precompression as possible being obtained by restricting the volume
of the crank case to the minimum. The pressure in the latter reaches
Fig. 50. Atlas Delivery Wagon.
7 to 8 pounds to the square inch, as compared with 3 to 4 pounds
in many others, so that a quick transfer of the charge is effected.
Fig. 51. Chase, Model D, Chassis.
Chase. A radically different type of two-cycle delivery wagon
is illustrated by the plan view of the chassis of the Chase, Fig. 51.
As will be noted, this is equipped with a three-cylinder, vertical,
two-cycle motor, rated at 18 horse-power. The flywheel is made in
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the shape of a blower and draws a large volume of air over the cylin-
ders, effectively cooling them. Drive is by shaft to a two-speed plane-
tary change gear of special type, located just forward of the counter-
shaft carrying the differential, from which the final drive to the rear
wheels is taken by side chains in the usual manner, the wheels them-
selves being of the ordinary wagon type, fitted with small solid rubber
tires. The appearance of the complete car with panel-top delivery
body may be judged from Fig. 52. It has a rating of 1 ,500 pounds
Fig. 52. Chase Delivery Wagon with Pauel Top.
useful load capacity, and as the construction throughout is very
light, its efficiency should be high. The same makers also list a two-
cylinder, two-cycle, 12-horse-power delivery wagon of 5()()-pound
capacity, the total weight of the machine with an open express type
of body being 1,400 pounds.
Templetofi'Du Brie, The Templeton-Du Brie is another two-
cycle commercial vehicle which has recendy been placed on the
market by a Detroit company of the same name. It differs totally
from either of the foregoing in that it is equipped with a differential-
piston type of two-cycle motor. The latter has two cylinders, and
the pistons are cast with two diameters, the upper, or working half,
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having a 4i-inch bore and stroke, while the lower, or fuel-compressing
half of the piston measures 6 inches in diameter. Fuel is admitted
through automatic poppet valves from the carbureter to the annular
chambers in which the larger diameter of the pistons travel, and is
there precompressed to 40 pounds to the square inch. The charge
thus precompressed in the annular chamber of one cylinder, is trans-
ferred through the medium of a port and an inclined passage to the
combustion chamber of the next cylinder, where it is further com-
pressed to 70 pounds to the square inch by tke upward stroke of the
working piston of the latter.
The transmission is a special form of planetary gear employing
disk clutches and is mounted on the rear axle. The forward axle
is an I-beam forging and the wheels run on ball-bearings, equalized
internal-expanding brakes acting on drums on the rear wheels. The
steering gear is of the worm and sector type, while the control is en-
tirely by pedal, the various pedals controlling the low and high speed
and reverse being interlocked in such a manner that only one can
be engaged at a time.
Spring Design. There is a greater difference of opinion on the
part of designers regarding the spring equipment than almost any
other part of the chassis outside of the motor. With few exceptions,
the use of semi-elliptic springs forward is universal and may be
regarded as standard; it is in the rear where the greater portion of
the load is carried that differences are found. Generally speaking,
practice where the latter is concerned is divided between the straight
semi-elliptic and the three-member or half-platform type of suspen-
sion on heavy and moderately heavy truck types, while the platform,
elliptic, and half-elliptic are all foimd on delivery wagons.
It will be quite evident that the suspension of the average com-
mercial wagon presents no mean problem for the engineer. The
springs of the business wagon must work under widely differing con-
ditions during the course of every day's service. Part of the time
it will be traveling at a slow speed over smooth pavements with a
full load, while the remainder of the time it will run light — frequently
over indifferent roads — and there is always a temptation for the driver
to speed, regardless of road conditions, when the vehicle is empty.
The heavy static load imposed by the full body must be properly
provided for, as must also the terrific dynamic stresses occasioned
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by bumping the empty wagon over a bad road at high speed. Between
these two widely separated limits, the suspension must be such as to
afford the greatest protection to the motor and other mechanisms.
To illustrate the varying conditions to which the springs of a delivery
wagon were subjected as well as the movement of different types of
springs, the makers of the Grabowsky power wagons undertook a
series of tests, the results of which are very interesting.
The vehicle selected was a Grabowsky 1-ton delivery type
with a 102-inch wheel base, 56-inch tread, and 32-inch by 3J-i^ch
solid rubber-tire equipment on all four wheels. The springs were
half-elliptic forward and of the half-platform type in the rear. The
front and rear side springs were 44 inches long by 2J inches wide
and had a 5-inch opening when the car was empty. The rear cross
spring was 35^ inches long by 2\ inches wide and had a 5f-inch
opening. The weight of the car empty was 3,650 pounds, of which,
after subtracting that of the axles, springs, and steel wheels, there
was an actual load of 1,700 pounds on the front wheels and 950 pounds
on the rear. A simple, graphic recording instrument was devised
to show the extent to which the springs moved, different cards being
inserted as the conditions changed.
To start with, a stretch of asphalt pavement was tried and three
tests run. This pavement had the usual number of small holes or
depressions, which are unavoidable, even on a well-kept road. The
car was run over this pavement for some distance without any load
at an average speed of 15 miles an hour. The cards showed the
springs to be riding very easily with a normal motion, and with very
little rebound, averaging approximately 1} inches above the center
line and about f-inch below in the case of the front springs, while
the rear side moved but slightly more than this and the end cross
spring averaged but little more than |-inch in either direction. Next,
a block-paved street which had already passed its initial stage of
smoothness was experimented upon and a second series of cards
run off. The latter preserv'ed the same characteristics as the first
series where the compression and rebound (the former representing
movement below the center line of the card and the latter above it)
were concerned, but also revealed a far greater range of action,
doubtless due to bad spots in the road, the compression reaching a
maximum of If -inches and the rebound 2 inches. This was likewise
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true of the third series, which were taken over a stretch of very
rough and uneven road, including a bad railroad crossing, the com-
pression in this reaching 2\ inches and the rebound If inches. The
cards in question were all taken with the vehicle light.
To make the tests comprehensive, a load of 2,550 pounds was
then put on the wagon and distributed as uniformly as possible. The
total weight of the car and its load was then 6,200 pounds, which,
after the proper deductions for the wheels, springs, and axles were
made, left a net load of 2,000 pounds on the front springs, and 3,200
pounds on the rear springs. It will be noted that the load in ques-
tion was 25 per cent in excess of the rated capacity of the machine.
Under it, the front springs closed J-inch and the rear closed 3 inches,
the rear cross spring settling '2J inches. With a normal load, this
compression would have been correspondingly less, but the test
was purposely carried out with an overload because of the frequent
overloading by the owners themselves in active service. It is more
or less common practice for commercial-vehicle owners to exceed
the rated capacity of the machines. The road selected was even
worse than that over which the wagon had been driven for the last
series of empty trials. It was found that the compression and rebound
retained almost exactly the same relation to each other that they had
before, though the range of movement under sudden stress was
naturally greater, reaching as high as 2^ inches in either direction,
this being experienced as the result of dropping intcTa depression after
crossing a railroad track. Another make of car having platform
springs both front and rear was tested as a comparison. The sides
of the platform were 36 inches and the rear members 37 inches in
each case, the springs being 2J inches wide. Normally, they stood
open 7 inches, closing If inches under a load of. 2,000 pounds.
Owing to the poor material employed and the stiff construction
necessary to make it stand up, an extremely jerky and uncomfort-
able movement of the car was produced. The steel employed was
of such poor quality that the springs soon took an excessive perma-
nent set, and after a comparatively short period of service lost their
springiness altogether.
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QASOLINB TRUCKS
As is the case with the electric vehicle, there is no sharply de-
fined line of demarcation between the gasoline delivery wagon and
the gasoline-driven truck. Owing to its far greater proportion of
power to weight and the fact that its radius of travel is not limited,
as in the case of the electric, load carrying capacity is not as closely
restricted. It is almost as economical to operate a 1,500 to 2,000-
pound wagon of the gasoline type, as it is a 1,000-pound vehicle and
the larger vehicle will stand up better under heavy duty. Even
though the loads be such as could practically always be transported
on the lighter vehicle, the heavier wagon represents a better invest-
ment in the end, despite the increased first cost, except in cases where
the average load is such as to fall considerably below the normal
carrying capacity of the 1,000-pound wagon. Hence, there is even
less difference between the heavy gasoline delivery wagon and the
light gasoline truck, than is the case between the electric of these
two types. Such cars as the Rapid, Autocar, and Randolph of 1,500-
to 2,000-pounds capacity are accordingly fitted by their makers with
open stake, express, or closed delivery bodies, and in the case of the
Rapid are also utilized as buses or sight-seeing wagons having a
capacity of 12 to 16 persons.
It is in the transportation of heavy loads that the gasoline-
driven vehicle shows to the greatest advantage on a ton-mile basis,
as well as in speed of delivery, as its ability to travel is not hampered
by power restrictions. It has been pointed out that with an increase
In load-carrying capacity, not alone the traveling radius but the speed
of the electric is greatly reduced, and as the radius of travel increases
with a reduction in the discharge, it is accordingly not economical
to attempt to run a heavy electric at more than a very
moderate speed. 5-ton and 10-ton trucks driven by electric
power are not capable of being driven at a speed much in excess of
4 to 6 miles an hour, and even at this low rate of travel, their radius
is rather limited, while the great amount of battery necessary tends
to cut down their efficiency somewhat. For this reason, electric
vehicles have, in the main, been confined to the light and medium
capacity types, though not a few 5-ton and some 10-ton trucks
are in operation. The total number, however, is insignificant as it
is difficult for them to compete on an even basis with the gasoline-
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 87,
driven commercial vehicle in the transportation of heavy weights.
Speeds of eight miles an hour are easily attained by 10-ton trucks of
the latter type, and at this rate of travel they are most economical of
fuel when carrying full load. This is not their maximum speed even
with full load, as they can be run as fast as 10 miles an hour, with
an increase to 11 or 12 miles an hour when empty.
Air-Cooled Motors Show High Load Efficiency. Mention has
already been made in connection with the description of electric
delivery wagons that load efficiency, or the amount of useful weight
that may be carried in proportion to the weight of the vehicle itself,
increases rapidly with the size of the vehicle. This, of course, varies
not alone with the make of vehicle, but also with the type, those em-
ploying air-cooled engines naturally having a great advantage in
this respect. Take the Franklin 1,000-pound wagon as an example.
The weight of the chassis is but 1 ,800 pounds, which gives it an aj)-
parent efficiency of 62.5 per cent. Naturally, the load cannot l>e
carried on the chassis, but as the bodies employed vary so much in
design and weight, the manufacturer usually lists the weight pf the
chassis alone. In the case just cited, the addition of an open, stake
body or a closed, delivery type would add two- or three-hundred
pounds, making the actual efficiency of the vehicle slightly in excess of
50 per cent. In the case of the one-ton Franklin truck, the increase
in efficiency is strikingly illustrated, as the increase in the weight of
the chassis itself is merely nominal, so that even with the addition
of the body and in complete running order with a supply of fuel and
oil, the load efficiency is close to 100 per cent. An equally favorable
showing is made by the Knox trucks equipped with an air-cooled
t}^pe of motor. For instance, the Knox 1,500-pound, air-cooled
machine has a chassis weight of but 1,800 pounds, while the chassis
of the 2,500-pound size only tips the scale at 2,100 pounds. This
difference is even more accentuated in the 3-ton, or 6,000-pound
truck, Fig. 53, the chassis of .which weighs but 5,100 pounds. To
cite further examples of relative weights which show a very favorable
efficiency due to the same cause, the Knox 3,000- and 4,000-pound,
air-cooled chassis may be mentioned. Fig. 54. These weigh 3,260
and 4,200 pounds respectively. It will be noted from the fact that not
alone the type of motor and the style of body have a direct and im-
portant influence on this, but likewise the tire ecjuipment, as the
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4,000-pound Knox air-cooled wagon has a chassis weighing but
3,600 {>ounds when designed for pneumatic tires, as compared with
4,200 pounds for solid rubber tires, v Fig. 55 shows a Knox 4-ton
truck, and Fig. 56, a 2-ton truck. Equally high efficiencies are
shown by the Frayer-Miller air-cooled trucks.
Load Efficiency Increases with Size. Above the 2-ton size, it
will be apparent that the load efficiency either very closely approxi-
mates 100 per cent, or actually exceeds it by a constantly increasing
margin as the size of the vehicle increases, as, once a certain point is
reached, additions to the weight caused by increasing the dimensions
of the load-carrying space and adding to the power of the motor are
disproportionately small as compared with the increase in load
capacity. Thus the American Locomotive truck of 3-ton capacity
has a chassis weighing but 4,500 pounds, and tips the scales at
only 5,200 pounds completely fitted, or "all on"; on the other hand,
the Manhattan chassis for the same nominal carrying capacity, i. e,,
three tons, weighs 6,000 pounds. However, as no standard for
rating the load-carrying capacity of gasoline trucks has ever been
attempted, and one maker's 5-ton truck is sometimes no larger
than the 3-ton truck of another, it is difficult to always make
comparisons that will be fair on a basis of catalogue weights alone.
The custom that grew up in the pleasure-car field of greatly under-
rating the weight has doubtless had its influence here as well, and
some of the figures are probably nothing more than "catalogue
weights," but under the circumstances, they represent the only data
available. Another great source of difference that is practically
impossible to reconcile is the extreme variation between the dimen-
sions of the bodies which are given the same load-carrying capacity
by diflFerent makers. In fact, this may well be illustrated in the
product of one make^. The Knox 4,000-pound car, equipped with
a 48-horse-power, water-cooled motor, and 40-inch by 6-inch pneu-
matic tires, tips the scale at only 4,000 pounds. This is likewise
true of the same type of car of 40 horse-power and 4,000-pound
load capacity equipped with 34-inch by 4- and 5-inch soUd tires,
and at first sight, it would seem that the pneumatic tires did not in-
fluence the result in this case. A little further investigation of the
specifications, however, reveals the fact that the pneumatic-tired
vehicle has a wheel base of 145 inches and is capable of speeds up to
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COMMERCIAL VEfflCLES 93
40 miles an hour, while the solid-tired car is only 103 inches on the
ground and its maximum speed is but 15 miles an hour.
To give an illustration of the increase in load efficiency with
the increase in capacity, some of the larger types of Knox cars may
be cited, reference to the different modeb of the same maker tending
to produce a greater uniformity of result than where various makes
are compared, owing to the many points of divergence which make
comparisons difficult. Thus, the Knox 4-ton truck has a chassis
weight of but 5,400 pounds; the 5-ton, 5,600 pounds; and the
7-ton, 6,500 pounds. The Manhattan 4-ton truck has a chassis
weight of 6,600 pounds; the 5-ton, 7,200 pounds. Fitted with a
special steel dumping body of heavy construction, the complete
weight averages 10,000 pounds, thus giving it an efficiency of prac-
tically 100 per cent in this respect. While the efficiency of a pas-
senger bus can naturally not be calculated on the same basis, it is
interesting to note that the Manhattan 16-passenger bus averages
6,800 pounds, complete with body and fittings; and the 22-passenger
type, 8,000 pounds. These two correspond with the 3-ton and
5^n trucks, but the bodies naturally are heavier.
Types. The points of difference in design, construction, arrange-
ment of the essentials, and other detaib are quite as diversified as in
the case of the delivery wagons. So, in order to give a compre-
hensive idea of what will doubtless form one of the most important
automobile types of the future, and which is, in fact, destined to
eliminate the horse from this field almost entirely, a number of
makes are described more or less at length and their differences or
correspondence with others made clear.
Franldin, Both the Franklin 1,000- and 2,000-pound light
trucks are really on the dividing line between the light truck and
the delivery type, as either may be used for one or the other purpose,
depending entirely upon the body with which it is fitted. The cars
have as their motive power an air-cooled motor of a special type.
In the case of the 1,000-pound wagon, it has four independently-
cast cylinders of 3f-inch bore by 4-inch stroke, and rated at 18 horse-
power. Vertical flanges are placed on the outside of the cylinders,
covering the entire stroke of the piston, and are surrounded by light
jackets open at the top and bottom, while the entire motor is also
encased in a light sheet-steel housing reaching half-way up the cylin-
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Fig. 57. Franklin 6-Gyllnder. Air-Ckmled £ngine.
ders. This is to compel all of die air drawn in by the powerful
suction fan — which also fonns the flywheel — to pass down through
the air jackets of the cylinders and over the cooling flanges, then
through the fan and out at the rear of the car beneath the body. A
Fig. 58. Franldin Truck witli Stake Platform.
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clear idea of this construction may be obtained from Fig. 57, which
shows a six-cylinder motor of the Franklin air-cooled type.
Pig. 59. Section and Front View of Franklin Engine.
In the case of the truck, a different form of bonnet is employed, for
the motor is mounted directly beneath the footboard, as will be noted
from Fig. 58, which illustrates the complete Franklin chassis of the
Fig. 60. Suction Flywheel and Dissected Clutch of Franlclin Engine.
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2,000-pound size. Further details of the motor construction are
shown in Fig. 59, the sectional view of which serves to illustrate the
auxiliary exhaust distinguishing the Franklin motor, while the con-
struction of the suction-blower flywheel, and the details of the multiple
disk clutch employed, are shown in Fig. 60. The same size motor
is employed on the 2,000-pound as on the 1,000-pound truck, and
the gear ratio on both is 0.83 to 1 . In fact, their specifications through-
out are practically identical, there being but 50 pounds difference
in the weight. The construction throughout is the same as that
of the Franklin pleasure cars, a laminated wood frame, tubular-front
and rear axles being used, the latter of the semi-floating type.
The springs are 40-inch, full-elliptic in front, with semi-elliptic and
coil springs in the rear. A sliding gear of the progressive type, giving
three forward speeds and reverse, constitutes this element of the
transmission, final drive being by propeller shaft. All brakes are of
the external, contracting type, one being placed in a drum on the
hub of each rear wheel, and one on the transmission drive shaft.
Instead of the usual bevel-gear drive, a worm and pinion are em-
ployed. The tire equipment consists of 37-inch by 5-inch Good-
rich quick-detachable pneumatics on the l,0()0-pound wagon, and
36-inch by 5i-inch tires of the same make and type on the larger
wagon.
Kiwx. As practice in the commercial field is not hampered by
prejudice or other unfounded bias as in the pleasure-car field,
but is based purely on results figured on initial cost and expense of
operation, the air-cooled motor is now much more in evidence in the
business wagon than it is in the car built merely for pleasure. Thus
no less than six different models of cars equipped with air-cooled
motors are listed by the makers of the Ejiox machines, who confine
themselves entirely to the water-cooled motor in pleasure-car design.
These range from the single-cylinder, 1,500-pound delivery wagon,
the motor dimensions of which are 5-inch bore by 8-inch stroke,
rated at 8 horse-power, up to the 3-ton truck, fitted with a four-
cylinder motor, having 4}-inch by 5i-inch cylinders and rated at 36
horse-power. Between these two extremes, there is the 2,500- and
3,000-pound wagon which has a two-cylinder, 5-inch by 7-inch, 20-
horse-power motor. The Knox motor is cooled by means of a large
number of successive series of corrugated pins which are tapped into
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the outside face of the cylinder and are placed in staggered relation
to one another to deflect the currents of cool air passing over them.
Both the single-cylinder and two-cylinder cars are fitted with a
regulation planetary two-speed gear and chain drive, while the 4,000-
and 6,000-pound wagons having 36-horse-power, four-cylinder motors,
have a three-speed sliding gear of the selective type, Fig. 61. While
the latter naturally differ to a greater or less extent in detail from
many others of the same kind, their design may be regarded as
typical of those generally employed, so that the following description
Fig. 61. Knox Three-Speed Selective Transmissioii.
may be taken to cover the majority, with a few amendments, such as
the employment of annular ball-bearings, instead of the roller type
shown in the illustration. The main driving shaft may be seen
extending forward with a flange at its right-hand end for coupling to
the shaft from the clutch. Parallel with it are the operating rods
which carry yokes adapted to move the gears back and forth, accord-
ing to the position of the hand lever, which picks up one or the
other of these short operating rods, in accordance with which side of
it is moved, or, when in a sector, which slot of the latter it is in.
Thus the rod »nd its yoke farthest away from the main driving
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shaft, controls the first speed forward and reverse, the last-named
through an extra pinion underneath it, not plainly visible in the
illustration. The inner rod controls the second and third speeds
forward, and as shown, is in the second speed engagement. For
the third or high speed, usually known as the direct drive, the
two parts of the main driving shaft are locked together so that
the power of the motor is then transmitted directly from the
clutch to the bevel pinion and large gear without the intermission
of any other reduction. This large bevel also incorporates the
differential, which is mounted on the countershaft. At its outer
ends, this countershaft carries sprockets of small size, driving
by means of side chains to larger sprockets on the rear wheels,
these constituting a further reduction in the speed between the
motor and the drivers. On the high gear, the ratio is 6.75 to 1,
which, at 1,500 r. p. m. of the motor, equals 222 turns of the 36-inch
wheels with which the car is equipped, and is equivalent to a maxi-
mum speed of 22.6 miles per hour. The gear ratio of the second
speed is 1L81 to 1, and at the same motor speed, it turns the rear
wheels 127 times per minute, which is equal to 12.2 miles per hour.
The first, or low gear is 27 to 1, or 5.8 miles per hour, while on the
reverse, it is further decreased to 34.6 to 1, or 3.2 miles per hour.
A substantial lock is provided to prevent attempting to engage two
speeds, while a strong spring tends to throw the shifting lever into
the neutral position whenever it passes that point The complete
gearset and its case weighs 600 pounds.
Frayer-Miller, The Frayer-Miller is a further type employing
an air-cooled motor, and, in fact, was the first of its kind built in this
country to incorporate a blower for cooling the engine. This blower,
which is of the vane, or centrifugal tj'pe, takes the place of the fan
ordinarily employed on water-cooled motors and is driven by gears
from the crank shaft in much the same way, but, as its capacity has to be
much greater, the construction throughout is very much more substan-
tial. The blower delivers a large volume of air to a manifold which is
led up and along the top of the cylinders, opening into the upper ends
of hght air-jackets which surround the heads and \^orking length of
the cylinders. The latter are fitted with radiating flanges past which
the air is forced, issuing at the open ends of the bottom of the jackets.
Contrary to the usual practice, the talves are placed in a vertical
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plane and face one another in a special valve chamber mounted on
the cylinder head, thus getting the direct benefit of the cooling cur-
rent of air. As motor trucks and delivery wagons are run at slow
speeds and with frequent stops as compared with a pleasure car,
the blower system, represented by the Frayer-Miller and the Frank-
lin, is an advantage as it makes the cooling of the motor entirely in-
dependent of the speed of the car. In the truck types, the Frayer-
Miller is listed in IJ- to 2-ton and 3-ton sizes. Except for slight
differences of dimension, the specifications are practically identical
in both cases. The motor has four 4^inch by 5j-inch cylinders
and has a nominal rating of 28 to 30 horse-power. A selective sliding
type of gearset, providing four forward speeds and one reverse an(|
having its shafts mounted on annular ball-bearings, is employed.
This is connected by a short propeller shaft having two universals
to a countershaft, from which the final drive is taken to the rear wheels
by side chains in the conventional manner. The axles are solid
forgings of square section, 36-inch wood artillery wheels being used
on both trucks, with 4-inch single, solid-rubber tires front and 3J-
inch dual type on the rear of the larger machine, and 4-inch front and
5-inch single rear on the lighter type. The front springs are semi-
elliptic, with a three-member semi-platform suspension at the rear.
Both the foot brake and the emergency operate in drums on the driv-
ing wheels. The wheel base is 118 inches on the 2-ton and 128
inches on the 3-ton truck with a 66-inch tread, this permitting of a
loading space measuring 12 feet long by 56 inches wide in the cleai;.
Rapid. By referring to "Gasoline Types of Delivery Wagons,"
Page 53, it will be noted that chassis of the smaller size just described
are also listed as delivery wagons. This is the case with the Frayer-
Miller, the makers of which list the smaller of the above chassis, with
but slightly reduced dimensions, for delivery-wagon service. This is
likewise the case with the Rapid, which, for delivery work, is of
unusually substantial construction. In the case of the Rapid, the fol-
lowing differences in dimension suflSce to sum up the points of va-
riance between the one-ton delivery chassis, and the li-ton to 2-ton
light truck. The two-cylinder, horizontal, opposed motor has a 5J-
inch bore by 5-incli stroke with an output of 30 horse-power, as com-
pared with 24 horse-power for the smaller. 2-inch axles are employed
with 32-inch wheels front and 34-inch wheels rear, the total weight
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of the chassis being 2,676 pounds, giving a comparatively high load
efficiency, even on a l^-ton basis.
But the difference between the requirements of heavy-duty trucks
— ^in which class may be included those of 3-ton capacity and upward
— and those of lighter weight is proportionately as great as the differ-
ence between the requirements of the pleasure car and the delivery
wagon intended for constant service. The ratio of increase in the
stresses imposed on the vehicle by an increase in the dead-load capacity
was frequently not given sufficient consideration in the design of
earlier trucks. It was often erroneously assumed that it was not
even necessary to increase power and dimensions in quite the same
proportion as the load increased. While this is true to a great extent,
and] particularly at the present time, it was not many years ago that
neither materials nor design were up to the requirements. For this
reason, some builders very prudendy adhered to the manufacture of the
lighter-capacity chassis for several years before attempting heavy-
duty trucks, the experience gained in the former field being utilized to
great advantage in the latter. The most common of early errors was
naturally that of attempting to use practically the same chassis for
commercial service as was used for the pleasure car. Under the
greatly increased strain of commercial service, clutches, transmis-
sions, and axles that did excellently on the pleasure car, here proved
an unremitting source of trouble, which did much to discredit some
of the first attempts.
A study of the conditions obtaining in the heavy-truck field, as
compared, with the requirements of lighter vehicles, is responsible
for the striking difference shown in the design of the Rapid 3-ton
and 5-ton trucks when placed beside those of the same cars for loads
up to 2 tons. ^ Instead of the two-cylinder, horizontal motor, a four-
cylinder, vertical motor, Fig. 62, with cylinders of 4j-inch bore by
5i-inch stroke, and giving 45 horse-power, is employed. By noting the
different ratings and cylinder dimensions of the various truck motors
described, it will be found that there is quite as much divergence in
this respect in the commercial field, as in that of the pleasure car.
Ample provision for lubrication — ^the prime necessity of the commercial
car motor — is made on the Rapid by installing a gear-driven force-
feed oiler with a capacity of 10 pints, a return pump taking care of
the surplus oil in the crank case. As there are few things about the
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mechanism of a truck so essential to its operation as adequate pro-
vision for continuous lubrication, the equipment for this should be one
of the first things looked to in examining a machine for its fitness for
heavy duty. . Next to this come the ignition and the cooling equip-
ment, as upon these two depend in very large measure the reliability
of the car. ■ The Rapid trucks are fitted with a Bosch high-tension
magneto — ^which constitutes an independent and self-contained sys-
tem of great dependability — and a reserve system comprised of a
four-unit vibrator coil and timer supplied by a set of storage cells.
Two sets of spark plugs are employed, thus making each system
FiR. 62. Rapid 45-H. P., Four-Cylinder, Vertical Motor.
entirely independent of the other. Tliis is an excellent feature, as
in the severe service which heavy trucks are called upon to perform,
every precaution must be taken to insure absolute reliability, and
while a high-tension magneto of standard make has proven to possess
the highest measure of reliability, it is essential that the possibility
of failure should be guarded against, as this might occur just at a time
when' a breakdown might mean the delay of a valuable load of mer^
chandise in transit. The battery system is also a great aid in starting
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102 COMMERCUL VEHICLES
the heavy motors usually employed on trucks, as the motor will often
take up its cycle simply by switching on the current, or with but little
cranking, although the magneto has now been developed to a point
which makes starting very easy, and thousands of cars carry no other
ignition equipment.
The Rapid motor is cooled by means of a large radiator, mounted
directly in front of the dash, the water being circulated by means of a
gear-driven centrifugal pump. This type of pump has the advantage
of permitting the water to circulate through it on the thermo-siphon
principle in case it breaks down, which is not the case with the gear
pump. The foregoing will make clear the reasons for the preference
accorded the types of equipment in question on the best makes of
trucks, the accessories in question now being regarded as standard,
though in the case of the oiler and pump, there are naturally modi-
fications of design to be found. So far as the remainder of its con-
stniction is concerned, the Rapid motor is designed along conven-
tional and generally approved lines.
This likewise applies to the construction of the chassis as a whole,
Fig. 03, every effort havihg been devoted to making it as substantial
as passible. A heavy girder type of frame is employed with unusually
large springs. The gearset is of the selective sliding type giving
three forward speeds and is incorporated in the same housing with the
differential on the countershaft. Heavy gears of wide face are used,
tlie shafts being mounted on Timken roller bearings. The gear
ratio is 7 J to 1 on the direct drive, giving a maximum speed of 10 miles
an hour. The clutch is a multiple-disk tj'pe, running in a bath of
oil, while the final drive is by means of heavy side chains, a feature
of the drive being the use of a Hedgeland equalizing axle in place
of the usual differential. This consists of a solid, one piece axle,
with an ingenious screw clutch device for driving the wheels, which
permits the outer one to run free when rounding comers. The front
axle is of 2i-inch by 3J-inch rectangular section, while the rear is a
3\-inch round steel section. Steering is accomplished by means of a
differential-screw type of gear. The wheel base is 138 inches, giving
a loading space of 12 feet in length. The weight of the complete
chassis is 6,000 pounds.
The suspension of the Rapid trucks is of the conventional semi-
elliptic front and half-platform rear springs, but is characterized by the
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use of an auxiliary spring over the rear axle, to supplement the regular
springs ifrhen the truck is loaded beyond its normal rating. Trucks
of this type are intended for the service of brewers, ice, coal, and lum-
ber dealers, iron works, flour and sugar mills, and similar employment
involving the transportation of heavy loads.
'^The vehicle just described is rated as having 3-ton to 5-ton load
capacity, the same makers listing a heavier tj'pe designed to carry
Fig. el Rapid 5-Ton Chassis.
5 tons to 7i tons. Its specifications are the same with the exceptipn of
differences in dimension. A 60-horse-power motor is employed, the
frame being of 6-inch rolled steel channels, with proportionally
heavier axles and springs. The wheel base is 160 inches, giving a
loading space of 14 feet, while the weight of the chassis is 7,500 pounds.
American. The American trucks, which are listed in 1-, li- to
2-, 3-, and 5-ton sizes, are characterized by the use of a governed
motor, a sliding gearset in the smaller sizes, a wood frame, and a s|xjcial
type of planetary, with disk clutches on the 3-ton and 5-ton types.
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The governor employed on the motor is of the centrifugal tvpe, a(?ting
directly on the throttle, and is a feature of considerable advantage in
commercial work, as it not alone prevents racing of the motor be-
tween gear changes — which is detrimental — but may also be set so
that the driver cannot exceed a certain speed. The 1 J- to 2-ton size
is fitted with a 35- to 40-horse-power motor, while a 55-horse-power
motor is installed on the 3-ton size, and a G5-horse-power on the 5-
ton size. Drive is by countershaft and double chain in the usual
form, in every case, an I-beam axle being used forward and a solid
square axlj in the rear. The suspension is of the conventional.
Fig. 64. American 5-Ton Truck with Wood Frame. ,
straight, semi-elliptic type forward and platform, three-point, spring
member in the rear. A view of one of the American chassis is shown
in Fig. 64.
Manhattan. The Manhattan trucks are of considerable interest,
as being among the first heavy types to be placed on the market in this
country, their successful operation in sizes ranging from 2 tons to 5
tons, during the past six years, affording ample evidence of the bene-
fits to be derived from a special study of the commercial problem,
which led their makers to employ the most substantial type of con-
struction right from the outset. The comparison of weights of chassis
for a given load shows that they are considerably heavier than some
of the others, so that their theoretical load efficiency would be corre-
spondingly less^ but the extra weight would appear to be justified by
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COMMERC^IAL VEHICLES 105
the record that these cars have made in sen ice. The motor is a four-
cyHnder, vertical tj'pe, of SJ-ir^ch bore by 6-inch stroke, but wiih
characteristic conservatism, the makers refrain from giving it a power
rating. Its output is probably 50 to 65 horse-power at a speed of
900 to 1,200 r. p. m.
The frame is of a heavy girder type and is carried slightly beyond
the forward face of the radiator in bow form, providing a bumper
which serves as protection for the radiator. This is a small detail
Fig. 65. Mack Transmission Used on Manhattan Trucks.
but is of considerable value in commercial sen'ice as bumps are not
infrequent and the radiator is the first thing to suffer. A leaky radi-
ator is not alone a source of considerable annoyance, but also of danger
to the motor, whi^ a honeycomb type of radiator is diflScult and ex-
pensive to repair. One of the features of the Manhattan trucks is the
employment of an individual-clutch change-speed gear, Fig. 65.
WTiile this apparently does not differ from the ordinary sliding type,
Fig. 61, it will be noted upon closer examination that the gears are
not designed to slide, but remain constantly in mesh. \Vhen out of
engagement, they are idle on the shaft, being locked by positive
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clutches controlled by the usual shifting lever operating in a standard
form of H-gate.
The gears, of large diameter and wide face, are carried on sub-
stantial shafts supported on Hess-Bright ball bearings. The dif-
ferential is of the bevel type and is enclosed in the same housing as
the gearset, this housing being supported at its after end by the
coimtershaft. From the latter, the drive is taken to the rear wheels
by heavy side chains. The countershaft also carries two large drums
of wide face, to which contracting bands are applied as brakes, the
stresses of braking thus being balanced by the differential as well as by
the usual equalizing gear. Internal-expanding emergency brakes
are fitted on the driving wheels. The first service in which the
Manhattan cars were generally employed was that of sight-seeing cars,
station buses, and the like, having a capacity ranging from 12 to 22
passengers. A large number of these cars, fitted with various types
of closed and open bodies are now in service. The ccmstruction
throughout has been standardized by the makers, the same motor
and gearset being used on all sizes from the 12-passenger, sight-seeing
car up to the 5-ton truck, the difference naturally being in the manner
of utilizing the power by varying the gear ratio between the motor
and driving wheels. The small buses and sight-seeing wagons con-
sequently are capable of speeds up to 25 'miles an hour, while the
heavy trucks run from 10 to 12 miles an hour loaded, and up to 15
or 10 miles empty. Owing to the gear ratios necessary to give these
low speeds of travel, especially on the first and second gear changes,
it would be necessary to race the motor unduly to exceed the speed-s
in question. For commercial service, the Manhattan chassis are
built with capacities of 2, 3, 4, and 5 tons.
Packard, The Packard 3-ton truck, built by the manufacturers
of the pleasure cars of the same name, affords an excellent example
of the progress that has been made in the development of a truck
designed to meet the most severe business requirements. It is the
result of several years' study of the problem and was only placed on the
market after a thorough trying out of the vehicle from every point of
view. The motor is of the four-cylindei^, vertical, water-cooled, four-
cycle type and is characterized by the same features of design which .
distinguish the motor employed on the pleasure car. As is the case
on the latter, the motor is carried on the forward end of the chassis
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108 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
under the same type of bonnet, Fig. 66. The cylinders have a 4i-
inch bore and a 5i-inch stroke, the motor being designed to develop
24 horse-power at an unusually moderate speed. This makes it
capable of giving an output largely in excess of this by simply in-
creasing the speed of the motor, which, due to its low normal r. p. m.
rate has a wider range of acceleration without racing than is
possible with a higher initial rate. An unusually flexible motor thus
results, and the importance of this feature may be appreciated when
the low speeds of travel to which the commercial vehicle is necessarily
restricted are borne in mind. In other words, the discrepancy be-
tween the motor speed and that of the car is greatly reduced, and the
necessity for employing a high gear ratio correspondingly lessened.
Cooling is accomplished by means of a cellular radiator, the
water being circulated by a centrifugal pump of large capacity. The
radiator itself is carried on a trunnion type of mounting which pre-
vents it being affected by any torsional stresses set up by the twisting
of the frame. An Eisemann high-tension magneto is employed for the
ignition, with a set of storage cells for resen^e current. The clutch is
what is known as a dry-plate type, in which a floating disk having both
of its surfaces covered to a large extent with cork inserts, is clamped
between plain metal disks secured to the flj^heel and the trans-
mission shaft respectively. Changes of speed are effected by means
of a sliding gear of the same type as is employed on the Packard
pleasure cars, final drive taking the form that has become standard
practice in American heavy-truck design, viz, double side chains. To
overcome the whipping and jerking effect on the chains occasioned
by frequent changes of speed, the countershaft carries two heavy
disks, one at either end, just inside the sprocket. These act as bal-
ance wheels and ke^p the countershaft rotating at a practically uni-
form speed. Heavy stresses suddenly imposed on the chains, as in
starting large loads, and in changing from one speed to another, tend
to stretch the links and throw the chain out of pitch with the sprockets,
thus bringing about rapid wear and making the chains very noisy,
while there is also danger of breaking a chain .when the stress is more
than ordinarily severe. This simple expedient is accordingly becom-
ing generally adopted in truck work.
American Locomotive. An excellent illustration of the adapta-
bility of the internal combustion motor for commercial sei;v'ice is
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 10<1
afforded by the American Locomotive 3-ton truck, Fig. 67, in which
the same motor is employed as on the taxicab made by the same
manufactm^rs. This .motor is of the standard four-cylinder, four-
cycle, vertical type and is equipped with a governor. When adapted
to cab use, the governor is set so that the motor cannot exceed the very
moderate speed of 850 r. p. m. At this rate, it develops 16 horse-
Fig. 67. Chawte of Alco 3-Ton Truck.
power and limits the speed of the vehicle to 20 miles an hour. On
the truck, it is set for 1,000 r. p. m., giving an output of 24 horse-
power and a speed of approximately 12 to 14 miles an hour. The
motor is mounted directly under the footboards, and as the height of
the frame when the car is loaded is 36 inches above the ground, this
makes every part of the mechanism of the power-plant directly acces-
sible. As shown in Fig. 68, the radiator is spring supported, the
helical springs on the upper and lower ends of the rods counteracting
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one another and entirely relieving it of the jolting and vibration which
is unavoidable in a heavily loaded vehicle running on solid tires,
^rhe usual sliding type of change-speed gear, providing three forward
Fig. 68. AIco Truck, Showing Spring-Supported Radiator.
speeds and reverse, is encased in the same housing with the differential
on a heavy countershaft, from which the drive is by side chains to the
rear wheels. Solid one-piece axles of rectangular- section are em-
ployed, the wheek running on Timken roller bearings. Straight
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semi-elliptic springs are used for the suspension at all four points.
The length of the loading space is 12 feet with the standard body,
the width being optional. Though of the most substantial con-
struction throughout, the American Locomotive truck has an un-
usually high-load efiiciency percentage, as the chassis weighs but 4,850
pounds, the weight of the.3-ton truck complete with the usual standard
express body having a light frame and canvas top, being 5,260 pounds.
It win W noted that while the loading space is as great as diat pro-
vided' in' nfany of the 3-ton to 5-ton trucks already described, the
wheel base is very short — but 110 inches, owing to the placing of the
motor under the footboards, which eliminates the necessity for any
overhang forward. The maximum width is approximately 78 inches
over the rear hubs, this corresponding to a gauge of 66 inches, which
is about the standard in trucks of this size and ranging down to 56
inches in delivery wagons.
If a resume of the features of the various types of trucks already
described were made, it would be found diat, while all vary to a greater
or less extent, the designer has, in every case, attempted to incorporate
certain well-defined standards. These are summarized by the
manufacturers of the Sampson trucks'as follows:
I. Accessibility and interch&ngeability of all parts.
II. Engine and change-gear units must be unaffected by any distortion of
the main frame.
III. Units should be so connected that any possible movement relative to
each other is provided for.
IV. All bearing and working parts should be extra large, and thoroughly
protected from dirt and moisture.
V. Brakes should be large and powerful, with provision for quick and
easy adjustment.
VI. Lubrication should Le most thorough and entirely automatic.
VII. All parts should be eainly accessible for inspection and adjustment.
VIII. The greatest strength must be given every part, consisteiit \Hth the
avoidance of unnecessary weight.
Sampson. The engine of the Sampson truck, Fig. 69, is of the
standard four-cylinder, vertical, four-cycle type, and is designed to
five its rated output of 40 horse-power at a normal speed of 925
r. p. m., or a piston speed of 850 feet per minute, which the builders
consider to be the limit for good practice in commercial work.
Oil is delivered under pressure by a gear-driven pump to the main
bearings, from which it is distributed by centrifugal force to the
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crank pins; the pistons^ wrist pins, and cam-shaft bearings being
lubricated by splash. The valves and all bearings are of unusually
ample proportions. The motor is located under the footboards
and i& mounted on a subframe, suspended at the rear from the
main frame by flexible plates, and at the front by compensating
springs of proper tension, thus relieving it of all strains caused by
the twisting of the main frame when the vehicle is traveling over
rough surfaces, and at the sailae time effectively cushioning it against
the heavy shocks transmitted to the main frame by the stiff springs
necessary to carry large loads. The gear-box unit, including the
differential and service brake, is hung from ^^',l2]^9||||nfl|^ hy three
spherically seated bearings, a single one forward Bemg universally
swung from a cross channel membfer, while the other two are riveted
to the main-frame side members at the driving-sprocket pinions,
thus, giving a flexible three-point support.
The radiator — of the vertical, gilled-tube type — ^is of very large
capacity, the circulation being effected on the thermo-siphon prin-
ciple, thus dispensing with a pump. It is designed especially for
commercial service, being composed of a center containing the tubes
and tube sheets, and with cast aluminum headers and sides. A
spring mounting is employed in connection with spherical joints
at the top, thus preventing arty strain from being transmitted to it
by the frame. In case of accidental damage, its mounting b so
simple that it may be removed and a new radiator substituted in a
few minutes.
The clutch 13 of the conical type using large cork inserts and •
having a balanced thrust. It is connected with the gear box by
means of a shaft equipped with universals of the box type, and nor-
mally transmits the power of the engine in a direct line. The gear-
set b of the sliding type with selective operation, giving four forward
speeds and one reverse, and at the normal motor speed stated, is
designed to give the vehicle speeds of 2^, 5, 7^, and 11 miles an hour
for the 4-ton and 5-ton trucks, and speeds of 4, 8J-, 12, and 18 miles
an hour, when fitted as buses.
Final drive is by heavy roller chains from the side shafts of the
balance gear to sprockets bolted to ^nd centered by the rear wheel
hubs. A feature of the Samspon trucks is the use of a dust- and oil-
tight hpusmg, Fig. 7*0, which also actfs as a distance m^mb^r fpr the
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 115
rear axle, besides taking up the torque of the hub brakes on the driv-
ing wheels. The frame of the case consists of a substantial steel
member of elliptical form, the sides being composed of light sheet
steel,- The entire case is hung on a spherical joint at th^ forward
end and ia hinged at the rear, thus relieving it of all strains. A simple
and very accessible eccentric chain adjustment is provided to take
up wear, the cases being provided with instantly removable covers
which expose the entire chain and its adjustment. What this pro-
vision means in the added life and efficiency of the driving chains
can only be appreciated by the condition of the outside of the chain
cases, Fig. 71, after the vehicle haa done a few hours* work on a muddy
road. The life of an enclosed chain is several times that of one
exposed to the mud and water, while the uniform and ample lubri-
cant provided assures a high percentage of efficiency.
Hewitt. The Hewitt trucks are excellent examples of the result
of long study devoted to the design of commercial vehicles of the
heaviest types, as they are built in 5-ton and 10-ton sizes, and were
probably the first of the latter capacity to achieve a commercial
success in this country. The manner in which automobile practice
has been modified throughout their design to meet the requirements
of the transportation of heavy loads on a very economical basis, will
be apparent from the following description: Ability to perform
constant service of the most severe nature was adopted as the basis
of the motor design, and it was constructed throughout with a view
to standing up for long periods under the hardest kind of work.
The bearings — which have always proved a source of weakness in
commercial motors — designed after pleasure-car specifications, were
increased in size considerably beyond any standard previously adopted
fcr this essential. In fact, while the motor, Fig. 72, follows the usual
automobile lines where compactness is concerned, it is really based
upon stationary engine standards except where speed is concerned.
The cylinder dimensi(»is are 4^inch bore by S^-inch stroke, while
the motor shows 36 horse-power at 1,000 r. p. m. Pistons
and connecting rods are made of unusual length, in order to reduce
the side thrust on the cylinder walls, a striking feature of the accessi-
bility of the design being found in the fact that the pistons are readily
removable through the side plates of the crank case by merely dis-
connecting,. This permits of inspection and repair to any one of
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 117
the pistons, without the necessity of dismantling the motor altogether,
Fig. 73. Such a repair would ordinarily involve placing the truck
out of commission for two or three days — an expensive item of main-
tenance with such a heavy vehicle.
Extra large, flat-seated valves are employed and an unusual
volume of water is provided for in the jackets. The crank shaft is
cut from a solid slab of steel and the cam shaft is a one-piece drop-
forging. Oiling is entirely automatic, by means of a force-feed
oil pump driven through gears from the cam shaft, while ignition
Fig. 72. Valve Side. Hewitt 5- and 10-Ton Truck Motor.
is provided for by Bosch high-tension magneto running with a
fixed spark. As already mentioned, the magneto itself is an inde-
pendent, self-contained system, and, on the Hewitt truck, it is mounted
so as to be removable in a few minutes, the designer being of the
opinion that a second magneto carried in the tool box provides the
best form of emergency equipment.
The same feature of interchangeability is carried out in the
case of the radiator. This is of the Livingston cellular type and
provides an unusually large cooling surface. As heavy trucks are
subject to extremely severe vibration and jolting when running light,
a special form of mounting has been adopted. The entire radiator
is set in a steel case, surrounded by felt, and the case itself is sus-
pended on compensating springs so as to relieve it of all jar. In case
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118 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
of accident, the entire radiator may be removed from the car and
another substituted in a few minutes. A planetary type of change-
speed gear of special form is employed, the method of control being
one of the features of the Hewitt trucks. This control takes the
form of three pedals, so that the driver is never called upon to remove
his hands from the steering wheel. These pedals give the first, second,
and reverse speeds respectively, and are so arranged that when one
Fig. 73. Majzmeto Sido Hewitt Motor Showing High Crank Cace.
is pushed into engagement it locks there. By a special system of
interlocking, pushing a second pedal automatically releases the
first before the speed controlled by the second can be engaged, which
makes the handling of a heiwy truck extremely simple and easy.
The truck is geared to make a speed of S.() miles an hour with the
motor running at 1 ,0()0 r. p. m. 7 miles to 9 miles per hour is the most
economic speed of operation loaded, while 10 miles an hour is a
possible speed with an empty truck. Carrying a 5-ton load, the
car is capable of running 4 to G miles on a gallon of gasoline and is
capable of mounting grades up to 10 per cent with full load, Fig. 74
Hewitt 10-Ton, Contrary to general opinion, the chief diffi-
culty experienced in the design of a truck to carry a load of 10 tons
was not encountered} in the motor or other parts of the mechanism,
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but in the provision of a tire that would giva satisfactory service under
this very heavy load, as witli the weight of the car added, the pressure
on the ground reaches 700 pounds per square inch. A tire formed
of heavy rubber blocks, the construction of which is gone into more
in detail under the subject of tires, was found to solve the problem.
The motor is the same as that used on the o-ton truck, but the speed
of the vehicle has been reduced to a maximum of G to 7 miles an
hour as this is as fast as it has been found safe to travel with such a
great weight. In a truck of this size, tlie parts are naturally of mas-
sive dimensions, Fig. 75. For instance, the frame is of pressed steel,
having side members 9 inches deep, while the clear loading space
Fig. 74. Hewitt 5- Ton Truck.
back of the driver's seat is 14 feet. The heaviest chains of 2-inch
pitch are employed for driving the rear wheels, while roller bearings
of special design were found to be necessary to carry the load imposed
on them. The driving sprockets on the rear wheels are 36 inches
in diameter. As is the case on the o-ton truck, the special, two-speed,
planetary gear with pedal control is employed. This runs in oil,
the low and reverse speeds being operated by asbestos faced bands,
while the direct drive is obtained by engaging a conical clutch. This
is held in position by a plate, acting on a set of springs which give
just the necessary pressure to drive the car, so that the clutch cannot
grip suddenly. The supply of oil in the gearset is inaintiiined by
the same oil pump which fec^ds the crank case of the motor. In
this, as well as other features, the specifications of the 5-ton and 10-
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ton trucks are the same. It is naturally out of the question to give
trucks of this character a large overload capacity, as a number of
the parts, such as the wheels, chains, tires, and the like must be
worked up close to theit* safe limit in the original design, so that
carrying a continuous overload would be apt to destroy their factor
of safety in a comparatively short time. However, it has been found
within the capacity of a 5-ton truck to haul a 5-ton trailer behind it,
in addition to transporting its own full load, giving it a total capacity
of 10 tons. Such trucks are specially designed for the carrying of
coal, building materials, structural iron, and other heavy products
which may be transported in bulk. This company also builds 2-ton
and 3-ton trucks of the same general characteristics.
Two-Cycle Types of Trucks. Reliance. Mention has already
been made of the fact that comparatively little attention has been
devoted to the development of the two-cycle motor for commercial
use, and this is particularly true where the heavier types of truck are
concerned. So far as the writer knows, the only large truck of this
type on the market at the present writing is the Reliance, which is
listed by its makers up to 5-tons capacity. In this size, it is equipped
with a four-cylinder, two-cycle motor of the valveless or three-port
type, the dimensions of which are 5^inch bore by 5-inch stroke, rated
at 60 horse-power. This motor has been developed especially for
commercial service and has numerous features of merit, one in par-
ticular being the possibility of adjusting the main crank-shaft bear-
ings from the outside of the case, while the connecting-rod bearings
may be reached simply by removing a plate from the bottom of the
crank case. As the only moving part protruding from the crank case
is the crank shaft itself, the motor accessories are driven directly
from it at the forward end. The drive takes the form of a spiral gear
meshing with a pinion on a vertical shaft which is directly attached
to the gear pump below. This shaft also carries the timer at its
upper end and drives the force-feed oiler by means of gear attached
to it at a point where the shaft passes directly through the oiler, thus
making this part of the motor quite as compact and self-contained
as the remainder. Fig. 76.
The radiator is of the honeycomb type and is supported on
rubber cushions in a steel channel case. The latter is held by means
of ball and socket joints, so that no torsional strains can be trans-
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122 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
mitted to it, while no bolts or studs are attached directly to the radiator,
which may be removed from the casing in a few minutes. Ignition
is by means of a four-unit coil and timer, supplied with current by
two sets of storage batteries. The carbureter is of the conventional
float-feed type with automatic auxiliary air intake such as is com-
monly employed on four-cycle motors, and is attached to a manifold
communicating with the third port of each cylinder. When the latter
FiK. Tfi Keliiinre Four-rylinder, Two-Cycle, Truck Motor.
is uncovered by the piston on its upward stroke, a charge of gas
exceeding in volume the capacity of the combustion chamber of the
cylinder, is drawn into the crank case. On the following downward
stroke of the piston, which, of course, is a power stroke, the fresh
charge is compressed in the crank case, and when the piston reaches
the lower limit of its stroke, it uncovers another port and the charge
is quickly transferred to above the piston.
The clutch is of the standard conical, leather-faced type of the
simplest form and it is disengaged automatically by the application
of either brake. The gearset is carried in the same housing, but
separated by a partition from the differential and l)evel drive of the
countershaft. It is connected with the clutch by means of a short
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 123
shaft and universals. The gearset itself is of the progressive sliding
type, providing three speeds forward and reverse. The shafts are
carried on annular ball bearings; the differential is of a special type
and has its shafts mounted on adjustable roller bearings. A three-
point support is employed to carry the transmission case, which is
of cast iron. In the design of the remainder of the Reliance truck,*
conventional lines have been closely followed. As is the case with
any of the trucks employing a double, side-chain drive, the speed of
the vehicle may be altered to suit the conditions simply by changing
the size of the forward, or driving sprockets.
What Future Developments May Be. In the foregoing, no at-
tempt has been made to cover the entire field of American commercial
car design of the gasoline tj-pe, but merely to cite a number of rep-
resentative examples to illustrate the present trend in practice in
what is admittedly one of the most important branches of the auto-
mobile industry. But in a work of this nature, it is quite as impor-
tant to attempt to look beyond the present as it is to portray what
has been done and what is now considered to be the highest type of
achievement in this field.
Electric Transmission. It will l)e generally conceded by en-
gineers that while the sliding type of change-speed gear has been
successfully developed to a high degree of efficiency and depend-
ability in spite of great obstacles, it leaves much to be desired. With
improvements in material and design, it has survived despite its
shortcomings, simply because nothing better has come to light.
That it will continue to hold its place is at least open to question,
for the transmission is a feature of such vital importance in con-
nection with the internal combustion type of motor that attempts are
constantly being made to improve it. Many of these have taken
the form of an electric transmission of the power, and the details
of the systems of this nature that have come into actual use are
dealt with at length under "Gas-Electric Vehicles."
Manly Hydraulic Transmission, Another substitute for the
-gear drive is the Manly hydraulic, variable-speed transmission, in
which .a small hydraulic motor is directly connected to each driving
wheel; thus all four wheels may be driven, instead of only two.
The li(|uid — handltHl by a pressure pump which is run by the
motor — is ordinary mineral oil of a low freezing point and low
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viscosity, in order to insure free flowing qualities in all weather
conditions. As the motor may be run at a constant speed, entirely
independent of the rate of travel of the vehicle, its duty simplv
consists in subjecting the supply of oil to pressure. The minimum
is about 200 pounds to the square inch, and the maximum 2,400
pounds, and, as might be expected, the system of valves and motors
to properly handle such pressures, must be well designed and better
constructed. The oil under pressure is admitted by a single
lever directly to the hydraulic motors, which are connected to the
driving wheels. This lever operates a special valve system giving
the entire range of speeds ahead, as well as reverse.
A truck fitted with a transmission of this character was in service
for a year, mostly in New York City streets, and carried a maximum
load of 8,500 pounds. During that time, the machine covered a total
of 3,000 miles over poor pavements and an examination of its con-
dition at the end of that time revealed a further and particularly
important advantage, viz, its tire economy. The speeds vary from
a mere crawl to the maximum, and as starting is very easy and
gradual, the tires are never subjected to the harsh treatment that is
more or less unavoidable with the sliding gear.
In view of the manner in which the sliding gear has persisted,
despite its detractors and all prophecies to the contrary, it would be
I'ash to attempt to predict what the next decade may bring forth in
the shape of an improvement. Whether the electric transmission
can be developed to a point where the additional weight and higher
initial cost will permit it to compete on almost equal terms with the
mechanical type on medium weight vehicles is a question that the
next few years should solve. From the experience with tlie
Manly truck as well as from experiments along the same line that
have been carried out abroad, it is evident that the hydraulic type
of transmission is a future po;jihility.
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PART II
QASOLINB-DRIVEN TRACTION BNQINBS
Under this head falls a type of machine that at first sight will
doubtless strike the average reader as not coming within the category
of the commercial vehicle at all. But it represents an extremely
important branch that is just beginning to come into fts own and
which, in the course of the next ten years or so, is destined to prove
. a powerful factor in the elimination of the horse from many classes
of work now entirely monopolized by animal traction. Haulage
has formed but a comparatively small part of the work of the
gasoline traction engine thus far, and doubtless represents a r6Ie in
which it wiH not be generally used for some time to come; it is
rather in the carrying out of purely agricultural operations on the
large scale demanded by modem farming that it has shown itself to
be of the greatest value.
Strange to relate, the idea of substituting the power of the internal
combustion motor for that of the horse in farming operations was
first advanced in countries where the need for it was least. On the
extensive farms of the Western l/nited States, horses are needed
in such numbers to carry out the work thaftheir value exceeds that
of the machine which displaces them. The reverse of this, of course,
is one of the greatest hindrances to "scrapping old equipment" and
adopting a power vehicle of any kind. In France and England,
however, where the gasoline-propelled tractor has been under de-
velopment for several years, farms are small, though crops are larger
in proportion. The Ijnited States has always led in the invention
&ad manufacture of agricultural machinery, so that it was not long
before attempts were made to apply the gasoline engine to this pur-
pose. The value of machinery for such operations as plowing, harrow-
ing, and seeding on a large scale, had long ago been recognized in
Copyright, 1910, by American School of Carre$pondenc9,
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126 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
the adoption, to a limited extent, of steam traction engines, many
of which are in use today. The disadvantages, however, of this
form of power for farm use, especially in the West, had prevented
its widespread adoption. The chief of these disadvantages was the
expense for fuel as well as the difficulty of obtaining it in many
sections of the country, while the low eflBciency of the machine as a
whole made its use impractical even with comparatively cheap liquid
fuels, such ^s gasoline and kerosene.
The interest taken in agricultural tractors abroad will be manifest
when it is recalled that an International, Agricultural-Motor Exhi-
bition was held at Bourges, France — one of the most highly-developed
agricultural districts in the world — in the fall of 1908. The chief
competitors in the trials held were tractors of American, British, and
French make, the last-named being of the type designed to haul the
plows or other tools across the field by means of a drum and winding
cable. This system had also been tried out in California and
was seen to possess obvious disadvantages. It failed to score on the
occasion in question, while the American tractor, true to the stand-
ing it has achieved the world over, easily carried off the honors.
The machme in question was a tractor built by the International
Harvester Company.
Tractors Follow Stationary Engine Practice. Tractors generally
show more strongly than any other tj^ of power vehicle now in use
the influence of stationary engine practice. Students of automobile
engineering will recall that the first attempts at automobile design
in this country consisted of nothing more than the adaptation of the
ordinary stationary engine to a running gear, and further that it was
the dogged adherence to this abortive combination that did so much
to keep the American automobile so far behind its European com-
petitors in the first years of tlie last decade.
As a matter of fact, the majority of present-day gasoline- or
kerosene-driven agricultural tractors are little more than stationary
engines of the horizontal type, mounted on a running gear suited to
the needs of the machine. It does not follow from this that the design
is a poor one for the purpose, as was the case with the automobile,
as the conditions of ser\ ice are totally different. Speeds are neces-
sarily very low, as plows or other tools could not be handled properly
at a rate of travel in excess of a few miles an hour, while weight is a
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 127
desideratum, rather than otherwise, in order to obtain the tremendous
tractive power needed to start and haul loads involving such a great
drawbar pull as is required to break a number of furrows in hard
soil. As the loads are heavy and operation is continuous, economy
must be considered, and the slow-speed, long-stroke, one- and two-
cylinder engines employed are best adapted for this purpose.
International. The International tractor mentioned is p ac-
tically nothing more than one of the stationary engines of this make,
mounted on the platform of a heavy, four-wheel truck, Fig. 77. It
may appear superfluous to mention that the latter has four wheels,
until it is added that several types of tractors employ but three, in
Fig. 77. Qang Plow with Gasoline Motor Tractor in Heavy Soil.
which 80 to 90 per cent of the weight of the machine is centered over
the driving wheels, the third wheel merely acting as a guide. The
engine in question is of the long-stroke type with the valves in the head,
the exhaust valve being mechanically operated, while the inlet valve
is automatic; the governor, as is customary in stationary practice,
is of the hit-and-miss type acting on the exhaust valve. In governors
of this class, centrifugal force is taken advantage of to make the ex-
haust valve rod hit or miss the valve tappet, opening the latter or
allowing it to remain open, according to the speed and the require-
ments of the load. As the automatic inlet valve depends upon atmos-
pheric pressure for its operation, it cannot open unless the exhaust
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128 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
valve has closed on the stroke just preceding, so that no fuel enters
the combustion chamber except when an explosion is necessary.
As the governor is also usually designed to trip the igniter mechanism
out of action at the same time, such engines are very economical of
both fuel and electric current. The cylinder is of large bore and a
low compression is employed as compared with automobile motor
practice, two huge flywheels being utilized to give the engine a smooth
running balance. It is cooled by means of a modified form of water
tank, placed forward. Thb is provided with a large, wire gauze
screen with sloping sides, over which the hot water is sprayed im-
mediately on leaving the water jacket, then is collected in the tank
below and circulated.
The engine is mounted on a heavy channel iron frame, to which
is bolted the subframe carrying the stub axle brackets. The front
axle is arched and well trussed, and is provided with a ball-and-socket
connection. The stub axles at the rear fit into heavy axle brackets.
The drive wheels are entirely .of metal, having 56-inch diameter
and an 18-inch face; they have heavy lugs bolted to the tires to
provide ample traction, even on soft ground. Two friction clutches
are employed, a large one for the forward speeds and a smaller one
for the reverse. The drive is through two sets of pinions and large
gears, a sliding pinion on the crank shaft of the engine driving a large
differential gear on a countershaft carrying two pinions at its outer
ends, which engage large gears on the road wheels. The forward
clutch has three shoes, with large friction blocks which engage the
surface of a drum or pulley. Reverse is obtained by shifting a lever,
which throws the large clutch out of engagement, and engages the
small one, which drives an intermediate gear. The same lever gives
both the forward and reverse speeds, while a foot lever applies a band
brake operating on the differential. Steering is accomplished by
means of a hand wheel, worm gear, and chains attached at two points
to the forward axle.
The foregoing serves to describe the small-size International
tractor, which is fitted with a 15-horse-power, single-cylinder engine,
though it also generally covers the construction of the larger sizes,
which have a 20-horse-power engine of the same tj-pe, with driving
wheels of 64 and 70 inches in diameter, the gear drive also being some-
what modified to meet the requirements of the heavier machines.
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The largest size is equipped with a friction reverse which may be
eng^tged while the machine is moving forward without danger of
strippmg gears.
Abenaque, Tractors such as those described are designed prin-
cipally for use on level land, or where gradients are very easy, such as
are found on the large farms of the Middle and West. The Abenaque
is a machine that has been developed for the hilly regions of New
England. The engine is of the horizontal type usually employed for
stationary and portable sen^ice, but is equipped with a special cooling
device, consisting of two narrow steel tanks, mounted directly on it.
Fii?. 78. Motor of Hari-Parr Traction Engine.
This makes possible the use of a greatly reduced quantity of water,
while the head thus available assures a good circulation on the thermo-
siphon principle. As they have been designed for hill and bad road
work, these traction engines are equipped with three gear changes,
giving 'forward speeds of one, two, and three miles per hour, and a
reverse, all controlled by a single lever, the arrangement of gear
changes being on the selective principle now almost universal on* the
automobile. The clutch is operated by a pedal, or long foot lever,
and is of the type recognized as standard on hoisting engines. In
appearance, the Abenaque tractor does not differ materially from the
usual portable gasoline engine mounted on a wheeled platform.
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130 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
Hart-Parr. The Hart-Parr tractor which has achieved con-
siderable success, was one of the first to depart from the practice
of employing the ordinary stationary engine as its motive power.
As will be seen from the illustration, Fig. 78, the engine is of the two-
cylinder horizontal type, the cylinders being placed alongside of
one another, and having all the valve mechanism in the head, thereby
making it very accessible. The crank shaft has the two throws
placed 180 degrees apart, so that the heavy pistons are always moving
in opposite directions. This gives an excellent mechanical balance
and accounts for the single flywheel of gready reduced size. The
Fig. 79. Hart-Parr Traction Engine.
entire engine is enclosed, as in automobile practice, thus excluding
dust and grit which is frequently present in large quantities in the
service for which these machines are employed. It is lubricated by
splash in the crank case, fed by two force-feed oilers. The use of
an auxiliary exhaust valve, or port, uncovered by the piston just before
the end of its outward travel on the power stroke, is also a feature of
this engine that insures cool running under the heaviest loads.
An original and ingenious system of oil-cooling is employed,
making it unnecessary to take any precautions to prevent freezing in
cold weather. As will be seen from the illustration of the complete
Hart-Parr machine. Fig. 79^ this consists of a special tj^e of radiator
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 131
mounted on the forward end of the platform. This radiator is formed
of a number of thin corrugated sections, covered by a conical hood
and a short stack. The supply of oil is circulated through these sec-
tions of the radiator and through the jackets of the cylinders by means
of a centrifugal pump mounted directly on one of the cylinders.
The exhaust from the engine is led into the hood over the radiator,
and in the upper faces of the exhaust pipes under the hood are drilled
a large number of small holes, causing the exhaust gases to be dis-
charged upward in numerous fine jets, which not only act as a muffler,
but also set up a strong draft of air through the radiator. As the oil
Pig. 80. Differential and Drive of Hart-Parr Tractor.
never reaches a temperature sufiiciently high to boil it, and there is
no waste, the original supply should last as long as the engine,
barring accidents. The engine is capable of delivering 45 horse-
power, according to the usual rating, but as the machine is intended
to displace 22 draft horses, the tractor is given a nominal rating of
the latter figure.
The driving wheels measure 66 inches in diameter and are
driven through a train of gearing. Between the latter and the engine
are interposed friction clutches of approved design, one being em-
ployed for the forward speeds and one for the reverse, both operating
through a single lever; the traction gearing may also be independently
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disengaged from the engine, the clutch operating lever then giving a
forward or reverse motion to the power pulley for driving machinery.
The reversing clutch is also utilized as a brake. For ordinary
traction service, the Hart-Parr engines are geared for a speed of three
miles an hour and are fitted with the usual bevel gear differential.
The drawbar pull required for plowing is so heavy, however, that
for this latter service, they are equipped with the substantial spur
gear differential, shown in Fig. 80, and are geared for a speed of 2J
miles an hour.
To meet the demand for an engine capable of employing the
lowest grades of fuel, the Hart-Parr tractors are also fitted to bum
either kerosene or crude petroleum, this being a decided advan-
tage in remote districts in the United States, and particularly in
foreign countries, where gasoline is either prohibitive in price or not
obtainable at* all. These tractors can likewise bum alcohol by
making a slight modification, and it is anticipated that this fuel will be
largely used in farm work in the future, owing to the constant upward
trend of the cost of all petroleum products and particularly gasoline,
as influenced by the automobile demand. When using kerosene or
cmde oil, the engine is started with gasoline from cold, the tank
being specially designed to carry in addition to the regular fuel supply,
a small quantity of this fuel for starting. Two sizes of the Hart-Parr
tractors are listed, the 22-horse-power size just described, and a smaller
machine having a nominal rating of 17 horse-power. The latter
weighs 7i tons, while the former is one ton heavier, and the plowing
engine of the higher power weighs 9 J tons. The bore and stroke are
9-inch by 13-inch in the 17-horse-power engine, and 10-inch by 15-
inch in the larger size, the engines running at 280 and 300 r. p. m.,
respectively, and making 17.3 turns of the crank shaft to one revolu-
tion of the driving wheels. The experience of several years in the
handling of a large number of engines employed in various capacities,
shows that they will operate 10 hours per day doing the heaviest
class of work on a fuel consumption of 25 to 40 gallons of kerosene
or gasoline, according to size.
Avery. As will be noted by its general outline, the Avery
tractor. Fig. 81, represents a close approach to automobile practice
and is a total departure from the tj-pes previously described. It is,
in fact, a tj-pe of commercial vehicle designed for farm use, and it
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will be apparent from the following description of its construction
that it is intended for a wide range of utility. The power plant con-
sists of a four-cylinder, high-speed gasoline motor placed forward
on the frame and under a bonnet, or hood, as is the case in the usual
gasoline driven truck or pleasure car. Cylinder dimensions are 4}-
inch bore by 5-inch stroke, the motor itself being of the standard
four-cylinder, vertical type. It is nominally rated at 12 horse-power,
but shows a brake output of 36 horse-power. The engine aux-
iliaries are the same as employed in automobile usage, such as a float
feed carbureter, high tension ignition by means of a magneto with
storage battery in reserve, and cooling by pump circulation through
honeycomb radiator, mounted as usual except that the frame for-
ward has been narrowed to the width of the radiator itself.
Fig. 81. Avery Tractor.
The power is transmitted through a standard type of sliding
gear, operating on the selective principle and giving three forward
speeds and one rev.erse. The differential is placed on a countershaft,
final drive to the road wheels being by means of double side chains
in accordance with the practice developed in chain-driven pleasure
cars of high power. The usual distance rods are employed to bear
the stresses of driving and to provide a means of adjusting the chains.
Semi-elliptic flat springs are used forward, directly under the motor,
to avoid road shocks, whi^e heavier springs are used in the rear.
Internal expanding brakes are fitted in drums on the driving
wheels. The wheel base is 140 inches, and the wheels, 41 i inches in
diameter, giving the vehicle a speed of from 4 miles to 15 miles an hour.
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Where desired for road service, four-inch, twin, solid rubber tires
may be fitted on the rear and single tires of the same forward. As
ordinarily supplied, the wheels are equipped with cast steel rims
studded with two-inch hardwood plugs, which make a smooth-
tired, silent running wheel which not only- meets every requirement
of farm service but is also practical op hard roads and paved
streets. This makes a wheel of low initial cost as well as one that
involves little or no expense for replacements and repairs, the hard-
wood plugs being very durable. In addition to the construction
Fig. 82. Brennan Tractor.
mentioned, the wheels are also provided with 8-inch extensions in
the rear, giving the driving wheels a total face of 14 inches. These
extension rims are fitted with nine blades which automatically act
the moment the wheels strike soft ground. When this occurs, the
blades slide and catch back, penetrating the ground to a depth of
4\ inches, and eflFectively preventing slip. For work in the field or
other soft land, they may be permanently locked in the outward
position by ia pin, provided for the purpose, or they may be detached
altogether by removing a few bolts.
As a truck, the Avery tractor has a capacity of three tons and is
also capable of hauling one or two loaded trailers behind it; in
farm work it will plow eight to ten acres a day, .using approximately
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two gallons of gasoline per acre for ordinary plowing, and moving
at a speed two-thirds faster than horses, from which its efficiency
in this work, as compared with animal traction, may readily be gauged.
For haulage, it may be fitted with bodies designed for the transpor-
tation of grain, stock, hay, or the usual stake body for general use,
while a pulley attachment is also supplied for driving farm or other
machinery.
Brennan. As a type falling between the two general classes
Fig. 83. ColdweU Gasoline-Driven Lawn Mower.
described above, may be mentioned the Brennan traction engine,
shown in Fig. 82. This is a combination of the features to be found
in the former, in that a four-cylinder, vertical, high-speed Brennan
motor of the usual automobile type is employed as the power plant,
while the construction of the running gear is similar to that of the
usual heavy and very slow-moving traction engine. In fact, so far
as the latter is concerned, it represents a closer approach to the old
steam tractor t)^e than any of those described.
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138 COMMERCIAL VEfflCLES
KeUy-Springfield. Though designed principally for road rolling,
the Kelly-Springfield gasoline-driven road-roller may also be utilized
as a traction engine for hauling road material^ or for running stone
crushers and similar machinery. As weight is an absolute essential
in obtaining the maximum compression on the road material to be
consolidated, the tractor is of the most substantial construction
throughout and no attempt has been made to cut it down by the
adoption of a high-speed engine, such as that employed on the
Brennan tractor.
ColdiveU. The Coldwell gasoline-driven lawn mower, Fig. 83,
is a type that does not fall into anjf of the foregoing classes.
Its motive power consists of a two-cylinder, four-cycle, vertical
motor, placed transversely on a platform. The drive is through the
medium of a planetary gear and a chain. The same makers also
build lawn mowers with one- and two-cylinder, two-cycle motors.
Generally speaking, the types of vehicles already described
suffice to complete the range of those ordinarily employed for agriculj
tural and similar service, and from the accompanying illustrations
one may gain an idea not only of the varied character of their
usefulness in such operations as plowing, threshing, road-building,
and haulage, but likewise the effective manner in which the work
is performed at a greatly reduced cost. Fig. 84 illustrates an Avery
tractor at work in the field, while Fig. 85 shows it on the road, carry-
ing and hauling a load.
ROAD TRAINS FOR HBAVY HAULAQB
It will be apparent from a study of the design of both the electric
and gasoline trucks that there is a more or less sharply defined limit
to the capacity which these vehicles may not exceed and still be
commercially practical. This is lower in the case of the electric
than the gasoline truck, for obvious reasons, and the fact that the
former has seldom been built to carry more than five tons would seem
to place this figure as its permissible maximum. As a matter of fact,
it is better adapted for carrying loads up to and including three tons,
than above this weight. The gasoline truck is naturally not limited
as to power, but, as has been pointed out, difficulty has been
encountered in the design of a suitable tire for weights much in excess
of five tons, and it will be noted that up to the present writing, but
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one American manufacturer has attempted the design and con-
struction of a 10-ton truck.
It is not diflBcult to realize that there are numerous reasons
which make a load of ten tons about the nutximum which can be
practically transported on a conunercial scale in a single vehicle,
regardless of the type of power-plant employed to move it. The
first of these reasons would naturally be the excessive dimensions
of the body and wheel base necessary to acconoonodate a greater weight
in the form of anything but the very heaviest classes of merchandise,
and making the vehicle as a whole so unwieldy that it could not be
handled in traflSc. Not alone because of its enormous size, but like-
wise because of the excessive pressure per square inch to which its
wheels would subject pavements, bridges, and manhole covers, it would
undoubtedly be barred from using the streets in the average municipal-
ity. The amount invested in such a large unit would be considerable
and the loss arising from having to withdraw it from service for repairs
would be correspondingly heavy. For this reason it will be seen
that there are other matters beside those of design which operate
to restrict the size of a vehicle. Many manufacturers have not con-
sidered the building of trucks above 5-ton capacity conoonercially
practical, as whenever large quantities of heavy merchandise are
to be transported, it is preferable, for the reasons cited, to move it
in units not exceeding this size, rather than to attempt to carry greater
amounts at one time. On the other hand, the investment involved
in the purchase and the expense of maintenance of a number of
such trucks would frequently be so lai^ as to be unjustifiable for
the transportation of comparatively cheap material. Sand, bricks,
iron ore, low-bearing gold ore, and similar materials may be cited
as instances.
The road train solves the difficulties mentioned above in a satis-
factory way. A horse that is only capable of carrying a few hundred
pounds on its back, can haul many times that load in a wagon; and
so too a 5-ton truck is able not only to carry its own load, but haul a
trailer bearing an equal weight at the same time. Practically the only
diflFerence in such a case ^ould be the amount of fuel required and
the slower speed at which the double load could be moved. To go
back to the single large truck for a moment, another objection is to
be found in its inability to exert sufficient tractive effort under all
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conditions of loading and road surface. One expedient adopted
to overcome this has taken the form of a four-wheel drive, examples
of which have been given on Page 37 and Page 123. But this neces-
sitates expensive complication of the propelling and steering mechah-
ism, with the extra weight of these parts assisting depreciation. To
overcome these disadvantages, six-wheeled vehicles have been tried,
but it will be evident that unless more than one pair of wheels is driven,
the traction disadvantages of the ordinary two-wheel drive are always
present, and the six-wheelers in question have always been designed
to utilize the third pair as the drivers, with most of the dead load bome
by the other four. The complication, inseparable from this arrange-
ment, detracts seriously from its conmiercial practicability, not to
mention the greatly increased initial cost and expense for main-
tenance. It is therefore doubtful if the six-wheel vehicle will ever
be seen in any great numbers.
The numerous difficulties to be overcome would appear to make
the traction engine and trailers, the only practical solution of the
problem. To an extent, this method is employed in the United States
with the old style steam tractors as the motive power, but in the
light of modem developments, the speeds attainable by this method
are too slow. In England and on the Continent, where speed does
not appear to be quite as much of an object as in this country,
tractors have been largely employed From an engineering point
of view, the objectionable feature of having but a single pair of driv-
ing wheels, counts seriously against the system. Only the fact that
roads are very much better abroad than in this country has made its
adoption on any scale conunercially possible. Here, unless the driv-
ing wheels were fitted with cleats to assist propulsion, it would be
impossible, at times, to haul a paying load at all, and even with cleats
this could not be done if the road had deep sand or mud on it. The
use of cleats or similar traction devices is objectionable in road work,
because they concentrate the load of the driving wheels on com-
paratively small areas of the road surface, causing rapid deterioration.
Renard System. The first practical attempt to eliminate the
shortcomings of the ordinary traction system was made by Colonel
Renard, who developed the road-train system which bears his name.
This consists of several vehicles coupled together, the first one of
which carries the power-generating, speed controlling, and steering
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apparatus. A shaft, arranged with the proper number of universal
and slip joints extends throughout the length of the train and trans-
mits the power for propulsion to the driving wheels of each vehicle.
It is accordingly possible to transport a large and well-paying load
without having excessively heavy individual units, which are subject
to rapid depreciation due to the inability to provide sufficiendy resilient
' tires, or suflSciently strong wheels or springs fou heavy loads. The
road surface is also protected ^ the distribution of the weight over
the greater number of wheels and, therefore, on a correspondingly
greater area, does not make the unit load any heavier than where
a single vehicle is employed. In addition, rubber tires are not neces-
sary as sufficient tractive effort is obtained by the increased number
of propelling members. Steel tires may be used on the trailers,
since they carry no mechanisna other than the comparatively simple
driving and steering apparatus mounted on them, while rubber
tires are permissible on the leader, or power-wagon, because in no
case would it J>e found necessary to have the weight of this exceed
what has been found practicable in independent units, in fact, it
need not be above 3 to 4 tons.
The chief disadvantage of the Renard system lies in the applica-
tion of power throughout the train by mechanical methods. This
involves the employment of a large number of universal joints, and
it is a matter of common knowledge that their efficiency is directly
proportional to the angle at which they must transmit the power.
Owing to variation in the road surface, this would always be con-
siderable even where the train was moving straight ahead, reaching a
maximum in rounding curves of short radius. In other words, much
too large a fraction of the total power developed by the leading vehicle
is wasted in the linkage between it and the driving wheels of the various
trailers; the actual driving mechanism of the latter also contributes
to the power loss in a greater degree than where electricity is employed
for this purpose.
Sampson Tijdn. These considerations led to the construction
of the Sampson motor road train, which was exhibited for the first
time two years ago at the automobile show in New York. Though
designed along the same general lines as the Renard tram, it really
combines engineering features that are the outgrowth of motor-car
and electric-railway practice, ilts chief advantage naturally lies in
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142 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
the employment of electricity as the motive power, owing to its far
greater flexibility. It is, in brief, a Renard train with a multiple-unit,
electric control system, such as is now employed on thousands of
elevated and subway trains in urijan railway service. On the usual
tyoe of gasoline truck, 40-horse-power is not considered more than
suiBcient to move a load of 3 to 5 tons, and many vehicles of
the latter capacity are equipped with 60-horse-power motors. In the
Sampson road train, a 40-horse-power motor develops sufficient energy
to transport 14 to 20 tons, according to the number of trailers em-
ployed. Every car is self-propelled, just as ^very other car in an
elevated or underground train is a ''motor car," the entire train be-
ing controlled by the motorman in the box of the first. But as the
motor road train has no outside source of energy such as the third
rail or trolley wire, each vehicle must derive its power from the
tractor. It has already been pointed out how this i^ accomplished
mechanically in the Renard train.
Motor. The source of power in the Sampson train is a four-
cylinder, vertical, four-cycle gasoline motor of the type usually
employed on the gasoline-driven truck, but instead of transmitting
its power through numerous and constantly changing angles by
positive mechanical means, perfect flexibility is attained by first
converting it into electricity and transmitting this through heavily
insulated cables to the motors on each of the trailers. The motor
is accordingly coupled by means of a heavy, Morse silent type of
chain to the armature shaft of a multipolar electric generator placed
in front of it and directly behind the radiator. The voltage at
which the current is supplied may be varied through a range which
insures that the full current capacity of all the motors is within that
of the generator. The current is controlled on the series-multiple
system by a rotary switch interlocked with the starting rheostat so
as to make it impossible for the driver of the train to accidentally
damage any of the apparatus. This switch is operated by a second
wheel mounted on the steering pillar, just below the steering wheel,
which not only actuates the steering gear of the leading vehicle, but
also that of all the trailers, causing their wheels to track almost exactly
with those of the first car.
Switches are also provided so that the train may be hauled by
the motors of the tractors alone; or one or more of the trailers may
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be operated while the leading car is standing still. The power-plant,
including the radiator, is mounted on a subframe, suspended from
the main frame by springs, to relieve it from torsional stresses and
to prevent damage from vibration and jolting due to the employment
of steel tires. Each car has six wheels, the intermediate pair being
of a larger diameter than the other four and acting as the drivers.
They carry a predetermined proportion of the entire weight borne
by the trailer and measure 54 inches in diameter; they are fitted
with steel tires of a width to suit the conditions. Two independent
electric motors on each car drive these wheels through a reduction
gear. The motors are spring suspended and are particularly de-
Fig. 86. Sampson Power Wagon.
signed not oniy to stand heavy overloads, but also to be proof against
the roughest kind of usage. They are back geared, through pinions
running in an oil bath, to jack shafts carrying sprockets on their
outer ends, from which the final drive is taken by means of If -inch
pitch roller chains. As each driving wheel is thus driven independently
and is free to rotate at any speed imposed upon it by the conditions,
regardless of the others, there is no need for diflferential gearing,
while the electrical transmission of the power eliminates the usual
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144 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
t
sliding change-speed gear and driving shafts. These driving wheeb
are fitted with cleats which are provided in order to secure ample
traction with steel tires, and the suspension is of such design that
the wheels may ride over all sorts of obstacles with impimity, as b
well illustrated by Fig. 86.
Steering System. One of the features which makes the use of
the Sampson train possible in the rough country in which it is designed
to operate, is the inter-connected system of steering already touched
upon. Though apparently very unwieldy, one of these 14-ton trains
Fig. 87. Sampson Road Train Making a Sliarp Turn.
can negotiate a comer that is beyond the average touring car — in fact,
even beyond the taxicab whose steering gear is specially designed
with the requirements of city traffic in view. In fact, one of these
heavy trains can easily get around a comer which was only possible
for the six-foot-wheel-base runabouts of several years ago. The
extremely sharp tums that can be negotiated are strikingly illustrated
in Fig. 87, in which the tractor and the last trailer are going in
alitiost diametrically opposite directions at the same time. When
in New York a few years ago, the writer saw a train turn a comer
in a narrow street with its wheels within six inches of the curb,
while the wheels of the last trailer came less than two inches nearer
to the curb at the same point.
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This result is obtained by not only utilizing the front and rear
wheels of every one of the cars as steering wheels, and connecting
the steering tongue of one car to the one preceding it^ but also by
cross-connecting the front and rear pairs of wheels of each vehicle,
all being mounted on steering knuckles as in automobile practice.
The connecting rods of the steering gear are equipped with imiversal
joints and are supported at the centelr, the joints relieving the rods of
the strains due to the changing positions of the front and rear axles
as the car moves over uneven ground. The driver, sitting on the
tractor, controls the whole train by means of the usual hand steering
wheel and an irreversible gear connected with the front pair of
steering knuckles of the tractor. By means of the cross-connecting
rods underneath, the rear pair of wheels is turned in the opposite
direction to the front pair through precisely the same angle, thus
giving the entire car a pivotal motion on the central pair of driving
wheels. This carries the rear end to the outside of the circle, so that
the rear wheels, instead of cutting inside of the track of the forward
ones, follow the same path.
The method of connecting the steering of the tractor with that
of the trailers will be understood when it is borne in mind that all
are "double-enders," z. e., alike at both ends so far as. the possibility
of connecting them together is concerned. A yoke,, bolted to the axle
at the center is also fastened to the tie rod that connects the steering
knuckle arms. In the slots at the ends of this yoke b bolted a forked
steel tongue, in the free end of which is an eye, or hole. This fork
is at the rear end of the tractor and by means of the eye and an eye-
bolt it is connected to a similar fork protruding beyond the front
end of the first trailer; this construction is similar in many respects
to the old link-and-pin coupler of steam railway practice, except
that the eye-bolt is clamped to a horizontal rod that is free to slide in
a metal frame, bolted to the under side of the car, and the bolt to which
the tongue is attached projects downward, through a slot in this frame,
sufficiently to permit of considerable lateral movement. This motion
is cushioned, however, by placing a coiled spring under compression
at either side of the rod, to avoid the shocks that would otherwise
be transmitted to the steering gear.
It will be readily understood that, owing to the opposite angles
which the steering wheels of the tractor, or leading car, assume when
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146 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
making a short turn, the rear end swings out as the front end swings
in, exactly as when a long street car goes round a comer the front
and rear trucks assume opposite angles. The outward swing carries
the front end of the tongue of the trailer in the same direction it had
been moving, up to a certain point, when it is suddenly deflected in
the new direction. As the tongue moves, it changes the angles of
the four steering wheels of the trailer. Thus, the front of the first
trailer begins to make the turn at practically the same point as the
tractor did, while the rear end swings outward, continuing the second
trailer in the original direction. With this construction, the entire
tram, measuring 60 feet in length, can be turned in a circle having
a radius of 20 feet, measured outside the hubs. The operation of
steering is ^ easy as that of a 5 ton truck and the control is so
simple that one man can operate the whole train with ease.
Drawbars are used between the trailers, their principal function
being to equalize the distance between the several units of the train
and to equalize traction. The torque is so evenly distributed through-
out the train, however, that it has been found possible to walk be-
tween the trailers and pull out any one of the drawbar pins whila the
train was climbing all per cent grade under load.
Brakes. Braking is effected electrically through the motors
themselves under ordinary conditions by adjusting the controller
at a point which provides a braking effort equivajent to the capacity
of the motors. The electrical braking system operates smoothly and
is easy to handle. For emergency purposes and for service in very
hilly country, each of the driving wheels is equipped with a powerful,
expanding-band brake operating against the face of the sprocket
drum. Those on the tractor are set by means of a hand wheel just
below the steering wheel, while those on the following cars are operated
by a wheel attached to the side of the frame and must be manipulated
by an assistant on the trailer. With the exception of these emergency
brakes, the entire control of the train is concentrated in the hands
of the driver, who rides on the tractor.
To facilitate making up the train and maneuvering in small
yards or other confined spaces, both the tractor as well as all the
trailers are made double-ended, and any of them can be connected
up and run either end foremost with equal facility. Sockets, similar
to those employed for charging electric vehicles, are provided at both
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 147
eiidsi, into which plugs on the end of the connecting electric cables
nmy be inserted. By using long connecting cables, the trailers may
be moved about freely while the tractor itself is standing still. Al-
though all the driving wheels are provided with cleat-equipped steel
tires, solid rubber tires may be employed where the conditions are
such as to warrant their use, though the steel-tire equipment has
been found to provide all the tractive effort that is necessary.
The tractor itself. Fig. 88, has a carrying capacity of 2 to 3
tons, in addition to transporting the power plant, which is placed
under a huge bonnet forward, as in automobile practice. Each
trailer can, carry 6 to 8 tons, the dimensions of the loading platforms
Fig. 88. Sampson Motor Road Train in Service.
being 17 feet by 4 feet 2 inches. The bodies are carried on four
extra long, semi-elliptic springs, which are pivoted and guided in
pedestals, giving them the functions of equalizing beams to distribute
the load uniformly on the three axles, no matter how rough and
uneven the road may be, and of maintaining the axles in correct trans-
verse position, relative to the body. Distance rods hold the axles
against fore and aft displacement, the ends of the springs merely
resting in pockets on the axles and thus contributing greatly to the
flexibility. A speed of six miles an hour can be attained on the level
with a load of 20 tons, this being based on a hard macadam road.
On level dirt roads, this would be reduced to 5 miles an hour, and to
2 miles on a ten per cent grade with a good road surface.
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Qibbs Train. Another American road train was the Gibbs and
while it is no longer built, so far as the writer is aware, its design is
of interest, not alone as showing the tendency in this direction, but
also because Gibbs trains have been in use in the West. The first
Gibbs train consisted of a power wagon and two trailers, the motive
power being a three-cylinder, vertical gasoline engine, direct <K)n-
nected to an electric generator furnishing power to motors on the
trailers. These trailers were practically nothing more than heavy
trucks built on lines that have become familiar through years of usage
in wagon building. The front wheels was small, in order to turn under
the body, while the rear ones were almost twice their size. In both
cases, they were carried directly on the axle, and the entire front
axle of each of the trailers was swiveled for the steering, instead of
the wheels being mounted on steering knuckles, as has become
standard practice in automobile design. They were interconnected
so as to be steered from the tractor, but as only two wheels on each
vehicle could be turned, the train was naturally not capable of
rounding as sharp a turn as the Sampson train.
The tractor itself took the form of a road locomotive, being
protected by ^ cab similar to those employed on electric locomotives,
and was not designed to carry any part of the load. Its' wheels were
of comparatively small diameter and were shod with solid rubber
tires, while those of the trailers were of steel. The speed of the
train was regulated by a two-motor, railway t\^e of controller so
modified that by operating the drum intended for reversing the car
motors, the vehicle motors would be connected in series or multiple
combination. The motors themselves were of the standard series-
wound type ordinarily employed in electric automobiles. The
main drum of the controller was employed to cut resistance in or.out
of the motor circuit. No provision ,was made for reversing the
trailers as they were only designed to run in one direction; sep-
arate switches on the tractor, however, made it possible to drive they
latter in either direction.
The second Gibbs train consisted of a power wagon hauling
four trailers, the former having as its power-plant two, three-cylinder,
gasoline engines driving a double-commutator electric generator
through positive clutches on the engine shafts and Morse silent
chains. The rear wheels of all the trailers, which were four-wheelers,
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 149
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were driven by series motors through reducing gearing and roller
chains. The road wheels in this case were of special construction,
consisting of steel disks flanged at the circumference. These disks
were solidly riveted to bronze-bushed steel hubs and carried steel
tires eight niches in width. Speed regulation was accomplished by
the same type of electric controller employed on the first train, except
that the controller drum generally used for reversing the car motors
was in this case utilized to connect the two windings on the armature
of the generator in series or parallel, while the main drum of the con-
troller cut resistance in or out of the main motor circuit. Each
vehicle had an independent switch for reversing the motbrs. This
train was employed to transport machinery and supplies from the
railroad station to a mine in Arizona, the trip being 115 miles each
way, the route leading through a desert and mountainous country,
entirely guiltless of roads according to the usually accepted defini-
tion of the term.
It b for service of this nature that the road train is particulariy
adapted and as there are many localities in this country and Mexico
where the demand for transportation to and from mines situated at
long distances from the railroad is active, but where the traffic would
not warrant the building of a railway line for many years to come,
there will doubtless be considerable need for heavy road trains of
the gasoline-electric type. The question may doubtless occur to the
thoughtful person why the ordinary heavy truck, say of 5-ton
capacity, would not fill the requirements equally well, particularly as
it would be capable of greater speed than the train. It will be
recalled, however, that mention has been made of the fact that no
more power is required to move 14 to 20 tons load on a train, than
IS needed to propel the average 3-ton to 5-ton truck, while under
the extremely adverse road conditions found in districts where trains
are now employed, the speed of the single vehicle would doubtless
not exceed the average of the multiple unit. But the most impor-
tant factor would be the increased cost of fuel and labor, as in the
Far West and Southwest, fuel is one of the most expensive itenfis.
The labor cost would be increased in exacdy the ratio that the number
of independent units was added to, as in place of the single driver
needed for a tractor and five trailers, five drivers would be required,
by purchasing a second motor for the tractor, a second armature
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for the generator, and adding a stock of such other replacement
parts of the power-plant and mechanism of the vehicles as are most
apt to give out in senice, there is no reason why one of these road
trains should not prove very efficient and reliable.
SPECIAL TYPES
Where both speed and ability to transport heavy loads \inth
great rapidity are essential, the gasoline-propelled vehicle is naturally
much the superior, not only of other types of power wagons, but also
of the horse. The most important service in which these qualities
may be utilized to the greatest advantage, is naturally that of fire
protection, and a large number of automobiles of one type or another
are in use for this purpose the country over. Those first adopted
were naturally nothing more than touring cars, used to enable fire-
department officials to arrive on the scene ui advance, in order to most
effectively direct the placing of the slower horse-drawn apparatus.
Then came the addition to the touring car of the lighter forms of fire-
fighting apparatus, such as chemical tanks and the like, and later in
its order came the power-driven, chemical fire engine, which was
nothing more or less than a high-powered, touring-car chassis fitted
with the apparatus necessary to enable it to assume this r6le. In
its turn there has been developed the fire patrol wagon, carrying the
equipment needed to protect the contents of burning buildings, so
that by successive stages every function of the fire-department serv-
ice formerly carried out by horse-drawn apparatus, has been usurped
by the power-driven vehicle. This process of development cul-
minated a year or two ago by the ordering of a specially designed
hose wagon for the new high-pressure service of the largest city in the
country. The vehicle supplied. Fig. 89, was built by the makers of
the Knox cars.
In every case, the chief difference between these special
vehicles and the tvpes of trucks already described lies mainly in their
equipment, with certain modifications of the chassis to meet the
changed conditions; it will, therefore, only be necessary to give a
sufficiently detailed description to permit of the identification of
the chassis as one of the types already previously dwelt upon. New
York's special, high-pressure service wagon, has as its foundation
a chassis of one of the Knox 8,000-pound trucks. This is equipped
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 153
with a 40-horse-power, four-cylinder, vertical motor, with 5-inch by
4i-inch cylinders of the water-cooled type, and a special, heavy,"
three-speed transmission of sliding-gear pattern such as is employed
on all the heavier Knox water-cooled commercial cars. The wheel
base is 149 inches and the tire equipment consists of 36-inch by 4-
inch single, solid rubber tires forward, and dual tires of the same
dimensions on the driving wheels. The chassis weighs 5,400 pounds
and its capacity of 8,000 pounds load, brings it up to approximately
the total of 14,000 pounds which this most modem of fire-fighting
vehicles weighs with' its full equipment of high-pressure hose, tools,
and uniforms. In addition to these it will be noted that it is also
equipped to be used as a stand pipe for the hose; and as a brass nozde
coupled to a length of 3-inch hose with 300 pounds pressure to the
square inch is an extremely difficult and dangerous thing to handle,
it has proved invaluable in this r6le.
A less pretentious t\^e of fire-fighting motor wagon, intended
for suburban service and now in use in New England, is shown in Fig.
90; it consists of one of the Knox 4,000-pound truck chassis with
the body equipment as shown. It employs the same 40-horse-power,
water-cooled motor as the heavier car, but with a regular type of
three-speed sliding-gear transmission. Its wheel base is 103 inches
and its tire equipment consists of 34-inch by 4-inch single solid tires
in front, and 34-inch by 5-inch solid tires on the driving wheels.
An intermediate tj-pe of fire-fighting machine, in which speed is one
of the chief essentials, is shown in Fig. 91. This car was built for the
town of Brookline, Mass., where it has been doing effective service
for some time past. Its chassis is also one of the Knox 4,000-pound
type, but it is equipped with a Sj-inch by 5Hnch motor developing
48 horse-power and has an extra heavy three-speed, sliding-gear trans-
mission. It has a wheel base of 145 inches and is fitted with the
largest pneumatic tires in everyday service, viz, 40-inch by 6 inch,
because the combined weight of the chassis and its load carrying
capacity — ^which are equally divided, giving it. an efficiency of 100
per cent — is 8,000 pounds.
A most completely equipped, chemical fire engine of the high-
speed type employed in the fire-department service of the city of
Waterbury, Conn., is shown in Fig. 92. It has a 40-horse-power
chain-driven Locomobile chassis equipped with a four-speed, selec-
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156 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
tively operated, sliding gearset. It carries a large chemical engine
designed to ^e operated by hand, a reel of hose, and the other usual
fittings, and has a large acetylene searchlight for use in night fire-
fighting as well as driving. It is fitted with pneumatic tires, the
rear tires measuring 40 inches by 6 inches.-
To attempt to describe all the special types of gasoline vehicles
built would involve a reference to practically every form of horse-'
drawn vehicle that has ever been constructed, besides many more,
as the power wagon lends itself to special fontis of service to much
better advantage than its predecessor, as illustrated by Fig. 93, which
is a Knox self-dumping contractor's wagon. This is a medium
capacity truck chassis equipped with a two-cylinder, horizontal.
Fig. 93. Knox Self-Dumping Contractor's Wagon.
opposed, air-cooled engine driving through .a two-speed planetary
gearset to a countershaft by single chain. From the countershaft
the usual double side-chain drive is taken to the rear wheels. Inter-
est naturally centers in the self-dumping mechanism, which is shown
in action in Fig. 94. This consists of a countershaft attached to the
upper side of the frame and driven from the motor by a single short
chain through sprockets giving a speed reduction of about 2^ to one.
This shaft is thrown into action by the right-hand lever illustrated.
At its center it carries two small bevel pinions arranged to be slid
in or out of mesh with a larger bevel gear attached to a long threaded
sha^ft, giving a second speed reduction in about the same ratio. Two
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Fig. 96. Brennan Street-Railway Tower Wa«ron.
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 163
travelers linked to arms attached to the underside of the body engage
the screw thread of the long shaft and slide on a narrow platform just
beneath it. By throwing the left-hand operating lever in one direc-
tion the shaft is turned through one of the small bevel pinions so as
to raise and dump the body. Engaging the opposite pinion reverses
the movement and returns the body to its normal loading position,
the entire operation^ only requiring a few minutes.
The Hewitt 3-ton truck, Fig. 95, aflPords another instance in which
the power wagon presents a great advantage over the horse-drawn
type for special service, this truck being equipped with a windlass
driven by the motor and employed to haul the heavy, lead-encased
telephone cables in and out of the conduits. In Fig. 96, is shown a
Brennan 50-horse-power, emergency tower wagon used in the St.
Louis street railway service. Speed is naturally its chief advantage
as this permits it to eflPectively serve a territory of far greater area
than would be possible with the use of a single, horse-drawn tower
wagon. Fig. 97 represents a "pay-as-you-enter" type of bus built on
a Manhattan 50-horse-power chassis and designed to be operated
entirely by one man. It will seat 16 passengers comfortably. A
lighter tyipe of vehicle is shown in Fig. 98, this having as its founda-
tion a Knox 40-horse-power, 4,000-powered chassjs. A typical
"sight-seeing" car is shown in Fig. 99, which is built on the same type
of Manhattan 50-horse-power chassis as the bus, Fig. 9 7.
GASOLINE-ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Problems of Transmission. Planetary Gearset, Where the
total weight to be transported as a unit is much in excess of five tons— ^
which means five tons of useful load and anywhere from three to three
and a half tons of dead weight in the shape of the Vehicle — the use of
a mechanical method of altering the ratio between the engine and
the driving wheels presents far more than the usual difficulty. In
large measure, this is due to the terrific stresses imposed on the gear
teeth when starting the load from rest, and in order to provide for
this adequately, the gear box as a whole must be made dispropor-
tionately large. It will be noted that the Hewitt 10-ton trucks em-
ploy a gearset, but this is of the planetary type in which the load is
distributed over a number of comparatively small pinions which are
always in mesh, thus obviating not only the high pressure per gear
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164 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
tooth, but likewise the necessity of sliding the gears in and out of mesh.
This type of gearset has the further advantage of employing simple
band clutches for the low and reverse speeds, which, like the remainder
of its mechanism, are practically proof against abuse, even in the
hands of the most unskilled driver. But it has the great disadvantage
of not providing more than two speeds forward as a three-speed plane-
tary gear involves an almast prohibitive amount of complication in
design, because of the number of small pinions necessary. Its
efficiency is, likewise, not as high as the sliding gear t^-pe, so that its
simplicity and "fool-proofness" are its chief recommendations.
With the exception of the Hewitt heavy trucks, it is not employed on
anything bigger than a delivery wagon, or light truck, of about 1^
ton capacity.
Low First Speed. The fact that this planetary type of gearset
is not capable of providing more than two speeds forward, means
that the first speed has to be low enough to move the vehicle under
any conditions that it is designed to meet. On a 10-ton truck, the first
speed would not move the vehicle much in excess of two miles per
hour, and as conditions under which the vehicle would be forced to
drive on first speed would often occur, the motor efficiency would
fall off in consequence. One of the chief and inherent short-comings
of the internal combustion motor, as already pointed out, is its low
torque, or pulling power, at speeds much below or above its normal
r. p. m. rate. To work efficiently, it must accordingly be run as close
to its normal speed as passible at all times.
Electric Transmission, It thus becomes evident that it is an
important matter to'provide as many speeds as possible or changes
of gear ratio, between the motor and the driving wheels, in order
that the motor may always be run at a practically uniform speed.
For this reason, the sliding type of gearset with three or four changes
of gear ratio is an improvement over a gearset providing but two
forward steps; but even the former falls far short of providing the
wide range of running speeds desirable for driving a heavy vehicle.
Up to the present, nothing but an electrical type of transmission
has been found to afford the universal flexibility so necessary for start-
ing and running a heavy vehicle and its load by means of an internal
combustion motor. The initial expenditure involved in the building
of a vehicle thus equipped is naturally far greater than where a purely
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 165
mechanical form of transmission is employed, but it offers a number
of advantages, not the least of which is its silence in operation as
compared with a car with a sliding gearset.
Types. The electric transmission is a very desirable feature for
passenger service on city streets and a number of buses of this tj'pe,
Fig. 100, are in use on the Fifth Avenue stage line. New York.
The equipment employed in its essential features is very similar to
the tractor of the Sampson gas-electric road train described, Page 142.
The usual four-cyHnder, vertical, four-cycle gasoline motor is em-
ployed as the prime mover, direct coupled to h direct-current multi-
polar generator. This generator set runs at a uniform speed regard-
less of the load, or whether the vehicle is moving or standing still,
although the motor may be controlled by the driver in exactly the
same manner as when the transmission is mechanical. It accord-
ingly uses fuel only in proportion to the demands made upon it,
and as the motor speed is practically "uniform at all times, the effi-
ciency IS high and the fuel consumption correspondingly lower than
where the motor itself must provide for a large proportion of the
speed changing. Where extra power is needed for an emergency the
speed of the generator may be increased by running the motor faster,
thus giving the set considerable overload capacity.
From the generator, the current is led through a control some-
what similar to that usually employed on street railway cars, so that
in starting and stopping the vehicle, the driver does not have to shift
gears or pay any attention to the motor, but depends entirely on the
electric controller. The current is utilized to drive two direct-current,
series-tj^ motors, similar in design to those ordinarily employed on
electric automobiles, but as neither the power nor the voltage is
limited by the use of a battery, the current is employed at a higher
potential, permitting the use of a very light and compact motor
for the power developed. As will be plain from the illustration,
these motors drive by gears to independent countershafts bolted
directly to the motor casing. The countershaft carries a sprocket
at its outer end from which a chain is taken to a larger sprocket on
the driving wheel, giving a second reduction between the motor and
the road wheels. As each motor drives its wheel independently,
a differential is eliminated, and in case of accident to one of the
motors the vehicle can be driven back to the station with the other.
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COMMERCIAT. VEHICLES 167
The chassis of another form of gasoline-electric conunercial
vehicle is shown in Fig. 101. In so far as the power plant is concerned,
this consists of the usual four-cylinder, vertical, high-speed, four-cycle
gasoline motor, direct-connected to a multipolar, direct-current gen-
erator, the entire unit being mounted directly over the front axle
and under the footboards as shown in the illustration. The con-
troller of the street-railway type will be seen at the other side of the
steering »wheel, where its operating handle is most conveniently
placed for the driver. The volt-ammeter will $ilso be noted, mounted
on the sloping part of the footboards and in plain view of the driver
Fig. 101. Chassis of a Gasoline-Electric Truck.
from his seat, while the rheostat will be seen attached to the chassis
frame just forward of the rear wheels. The vehicle is known as
the couple-gear truck owing to the fact that all four wheels are utilized
for steering. The method of connecting the steering gear employed
for this purpose is plainly visible in the view of a complete truck,
Fig. 102. The drive takes the form of an independent electric
motor incorporated directly in each wheel, all four being used for
driving aj^ well as steering, as described. Page 36. As every one of
the wheels is employed to drive the vehicle, all are equipped with
dual solid rubber tires, it being the usual practice to employ the
latter only on the rear wheels of the ordinary form of truck.
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168 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
As already pointed out, the gasoline-electric vehicles, or the gaso-
line truck with electric transmission, afford many advantages in the
way of simplicity, combined with a practically universal range of
speed changes, from starting to maximum, owing to the various
relations that may be brought about between the generator and the
motors with the aid of the controller. As a matter of fact, several
speeds forward and two or three reverse are provided, which is natu-
rally a far greater number than would be possible with any mechanical
form of speed change. A further element of economy is contained
in the fact that the speed of travel of the vehic le ha s no bearing on
Fig. 102. Couple-Gear Truck Showing Steering Device.
that of the gasoline motor, the latter being operated at its most
efficient r. p. m. rate.
These advantages have been found to offset the increased initial
cost of building commercial vehicles of the gasoline-electric type, to
judge from the number now in service. These vehicles have the
further advantage of a low maintenance cost due to the great degree
of simplicity and reliability which is characteristic of the electrical
portion of the equipment. From the foregoing, it would appear
as if the gasoline-electric tj'pe of vehicle was destined to fill a place
of rapidly increasing importance in the field of commercial vehicles.
The use of gasoline-electric street cars, treated in another article,
shows the versatility of this method of propulsion.
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES \m
STEAM VEHICLES
It will scarcely be necessary to mention the fact that the com-
mercial steam vehicle has not been developed to any great extent in
this country and is far from being a factor of importance in this field,
as this is self-evident from the types of trucks in use. It might be
inferred from this that steam had not been found particularly avail-
able for commercial use, but quite the contrary is the case, as in
England it has doubtless reached about as high a degree of developn
ment as this form of power is capable on a road vehicle, while
about as much attention has been devoted to it in France as here.
As a matter of fact, the steam commercial vehicle has been developed
in Great Britain at the expense of the gasoline type up to within a
very few years ago. These steam cars, which are employed both
in the form of "lorries" (trucks) and tractors, are ponderous and
slow-moving affairs which,, in some instances, are really not very far
remove^ from the road roller and in others are about the same as
the familiar farm tractor used here. But with all the inconvenience
of burning coal and maintaining a boiler, they are clung to with a
tenacity that is characteristic of- British conservatism. They have
the saving grace of being cheap and as they have served for some
time past, they will doubtless hold on for some time to come.
Types. Specialized types of steam trucks have ako been de-
veloped, in which the power-plant is in a very compact and efficient
form, though none of the disadvantages of coal burning or very
slow rate of travel have been eliminated. Two trucks of this type
were tried out by one of the large express companies in this country
several years ago, but it was evident from the first that they were
not destined to fulfill American ideas of what the commercial motor
vehicle should be, and a comparatively few months of service sufficed
to demonstrate this.
Michigan. At the present writing there is practically only
one specially-designed, steam commercial vehicle of American make
on the market — at least, so far as the writer knows — excluding
traction engines, of course. This is the Michigan steam truck, which
Is built in sizes ranging from 1-ton to 10-ton capacity, thus including
delivery wagons as well as trucks from the smallest to the largest
types now built in other powers. They are equipped with a quad-
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ruple compound-condensing engine, i. e., there are two sets of four
cylinders each, placed at 90 degrees to one another, ihfi connecting
rods of the opposite cylinders acting on a common crank pin. This
engine b rated at 20 horse-power at 900 r. p. m., with an overload
capacity of 100 per cent; it is non-centering and has no flywheel.
Each group, or nest of cylinders, consists of high-, intermediate-,
and low-pressure cylinders, all controlled by piston ring valves.
All four pistons of each nest operate through two rods on one cross-
head, and the crosshead operates through a single connecting rod
Fig. 103. Michigan Steam Motor Showing Valve Mechanism.
on the crank on the shaft, the latter being provided with a balance
weight. As already mentioned, the. valves are of the hollow piston
type, the valve-operating gear consisting of a spiral eccentric gear
revolving on the shaft. This control permits of instant and easy
reversing of the engine and is claimed to be very simple. The cyl-
inders of the engine are of 2-, 2 j-, 3^-, and 5^-inch bore respectively,
with a uniform piston travel of 3 J inches and a valve travel of |-inch.
The steam is cut off at ^-inch of the stroke, making the engine very
economical. Its compactness may be judged from the fact it meas-
ures but 34 by 22 by 15 inches over all. It is connected with a 28-
inch by 40-inch oiler. Steam is carried at 350 pounds to the square
inch and is superheated. The general appearance of the engine is
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 171
illustrated in Fig. 103. The high and first intermediate cylinders
are controlled by one valve, and the second intermediate and the
low by a second valve, the cylinders and valves being placed tandem.
The valve mechanism on the back of the engine, as shown, runs direct
from a reversing eccentric, operating on the shaft as a sleeve and with
a spiral cut in it.
Generally speaking, the remaining features of the construction
of the Michigan truck do not differ materially from those of the
ordinary gasoline type. The motor is placed forward under a short
Fig. 104. Michigan Steam, 3-Ton Truck Ohassisr
bonnet, the condenser being placed in the usual position of the
radiator, while the steam generator is under the driver's seat. Drive
is direct from the motor through a long, horizontal propeller shaft
to a bevel differential on a countershaft from which the power is
transmitted by sprockets and chains to the rear wneels. The usual
wheel steering is employed, the throttle being mounted on the steer-
ing pillar, while the hand levers shown are for reversing the engine
and putting on the brakes. A 3-ton chassis is shown in Fig. 104.
White. Apart from this specially designed steam truck, the
only steam commercial vehicles on the American market are the
White cars. Here the same chassis as is employed for the pleasure
car is also used for commercial purposes and quite a number of
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172 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
vehicles have been supplied for ambulance, patrol, and other munic-
ipal service, as well as for the use of the Federal government. As
is evident from Fig. 105, they do not differ in appearance from the
usual gasoline type. The power plant of the White steam car con-
sists essentially of a steam generator, a burner, and an engine, to-
gether with the necessary devices for supplying water to the genera-
tor and fuel to the burner, in proper amounts. The White steam
generator does not resemble in any respect the ordinary steam boiler,
and it has doubtless been due to its many points of superiority over
the usual type of boiler for automobile service that these cars have
met with such wide-spread success.
The White generator, in the first place, has the water at the top
and the steam at the bottom, while the relative quantities of the two
that happen to be present is of no moment, the generator containing
but very little of either at a given time. In fact, the steam
is generated instantaneously, and only as fast as it is needed,
due to the continuous tubular construction of the generator, which
is practically one coil, having but twelve joints, aa compared
with the many hundred in the usual fire- or water-tube boiler. The
White generator consists of nine coils of steel tubing of ^-inch internal
diameter, one above the other and connected in series, so that if
straightened out, the entire construction would represent but a single
piece of tubing. The water or steam, in order to pass from an upper
coil to the one next below, must be forced up to a level above the top
coil and then down again, preventing the water from descending by
gravity and making the circulation dependent entirely upon the
pumps. In operation, water is pumped into the upper cOil and steam
issues from the lowest coil. The precise point in its travel at which
the water "flashes" into steam has never been precisely determined.
From its action, this type of boiler is known as a flcLsh generator,
the small quantity of water and steam it contains at any moment
being evident from the fact that its volumetric capacity is less than
J of a cubic foot. But the process of making steam is so rapid that
it is always available in the quantity the runnijig conditions of the
car may call for, this being goveme<l by an automatic thermostat.
Beneath the generator is located the burner, to which the fuel,
consisting of either gasoline or kerosene, is fed under moderate pres-
sure, maintained by an air pump attached to and driven from the
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174 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
engine. The fuel first passes through a vaporizer and then, in the
form of gas, enters the burner, where it mixes freely with air and
Fig. 106. White Steam Engine Showing Working Parts.
bums with a blue flame, as in the Bunsen burner. The products
of combustion pass upward through the coiled tubing of the generator
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 175
and are then conducted downward through an annular flue sur-
rounding the generator and are led to the rear of the car where their
escape is not noticeable. To start the burner, a pilot light is em-
ployed, the small flame of which b kept burning constantly while the
car is in use. It ser\'es the double purpose of keeping the vaporizer
at the required temperature, and of lighting the burner whenever
Fig. 107. Wliite St«am Engine— Left Side— with Pump Covers Removed.
fuel is supplied to the latter. When kerosene is employed as fuel,
it is necessary to use gasoline for the pilot light, but the quantity re-
quired is negligible. The vaporizer is a steel forging with a number
of passages bored through it, and by its heat converts the fuel from
a liquid to a ga.s.
The engine is a two-cylinder, vertical, compound, condensing
type designed to work at about 600 pounds pressure to the square
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176 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
inch. Its working parts, consisting of the crank shaft supported on
large annular ball-bearings, pistons, connecting rods, crossheads,
valve mechanism, and pump levers, are shown complete in Fig. 106.
The valves are driven directly from the connecting rods by what is
known as the Joy type of valve gear, the valves themselves being of
the piston type. Steam is admitted through the center of the valve
and exhausts at its ends; as the pressure is the same on all sides,
a negligible amount of power is required to operate the valve. The
crank case is made in one piece, access to the moving parts of the
engine being had by large handholes, normally covered with light
plates. The side plates are shown m Fig. 107, there being a third
large plate on the bottom of the crank case. The engine is supported
on two cross members riveted to the main frame and is so hung that
the driving shaft is perfectly horizontal. As there is neither clutch
nor transmis.4ion gear, the drive is direct and positive from the engine
through the long driving shaft to the rear axle.
OPERATION PROBLEMS
COST
While the achievement of a degree of reliability that would per-
mit it to compete with other forms of transportation was the first deter-
mining factor in the history of the development of the commercial
vehicle, it is needless to add that the influence of greatest importance
bearing upon its general adoption is cast of operation. One of the
very first questions put by the hi tending purchaser is — **\Vhat is such
a vehicle going to cost to maintain in service?*' — and a karge amount
of engineering talent is now employed in the commercial field in the
attempt to fonnulate an answer to this (juestion in each individual
case in which it is asked. In fact, the analysis of merchandise trans-
portation requirements and the cost of the service as compared with
old methods is rapidly developing into an engineering study of no
mean proportions.
It will be evident that under the circumstances, definite figures
are wanted by the purchaser, and they naturally can only be based
on actual experience. The merchant who contemplates making a
substantial investment in commercial vehicles wants to see something
more than a mere calculation of what their services will cost — ^not
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COMMERCIAT. VEHICLES 177
for a month or two months, but, as closely as can be judged, the
amount they will cost to run and maintain in repair during the first
year and each succeeding year of the useful life of the vehicle.
There are naturally many factors to be taken into consideration
in any complete cost-accounting system that is worthy of the name,
whether thi^ be for a single delivery wagon, or truck, or a whole de-
livery system, such as is employed by the large retail drygoods estab-
lishments. Lack of consideration of these numerous factors has
led many commercial vehicle manufacturers into stating half-truths
regarding the economic performances of their vehicles in the earlier
days, though it is not certair\ by any means that the practice
has entirely disappeared even now. The revelation of the whole
truth naturally proved a disappointment to the pioneer motor-vehicle
users, however, and the result was a feeling of distrust. It could
not have been worse had the manufacturer actually made misstate-
ments, for the user, regarded them as such in the light of his experi-
ence. To cite instances of what is meant by these half-truthful
statements, there may be mentioned the cases of cost summaries
which some makers print in their catalogues. Sometimes these
extend over a period of three months and in others, six months,
and the service records thus established are expected to be regarded
as a criterion of what the vehicle is capable of year in and year out.
In some cases, nothing for tire replacement is included, owing to
the short time the vehicle has been in use, not to mention such other
items as depreciation, interest, insurance, and other overhead charges.
Seldom, indeed, is the useful ton mileage of the car over the period
in question given, and quite a number of manufacturers, when ap-
proached for information on this vitally important subject, are not
loth to confess that they are unable to give it and that they have never
attempted to keep a record of the kind.
Some of the factors of importance are speed, reliability, wide radius
of travel, and even stylishness — ^which is considered an asset of the
motor delivery wagon — but, after all, cost must be practically the sole
governing factor by which the conmiercial motor vehicle is to be judged.
At the outset, it was really the uncertainty — that lack of reliability
which made the successful completion of a day's trip an entirely
unknown factor — that first militated against the commercial vehicle;
but since improvement in design, materials, and construction has
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178 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
eliminated that, the item of cost of operation is really paramount.
It manifestly lies more within the province of an article on cost ac-
counting for cpmmercial vehicle service, than of one which deals almost
entirely with the engineering side of the subject. Consequently,
the aim has been more to demonstrate what the commercial vehicle
is capable of — ^particularly as compared with fonner methods by
horse haulage, figures on the cost of operation being cited more to
show the superiority of the power wagon from an economic stand-
point as well — rather than to attempt to set forth exacdy what has
been or can be done in operating one or more vehicles.
Qasoline. Leaving aside the matters of interest, depreciation,
insurance, and repairs, it will be apparent that in the commercial
vehicle, fuel, lubricant, and tires are of far more importance than
in a pleasure car. One of the small 500-pound delivery wagons will
usually travel from 25 miles to 30 miles on a gallon of gasoline,
averaging better than 20 miles; a 10-ton truck will average less than
three miles to the gallon of fuel. Between these two extremes, there
is a wide range, a 1,500-pound delivery wagon running from 12 miles
to 20 miles to the gallon, with an average of about 15 miles, while a
3,000-pound machine (the figures refer to load capacity and not to
chassis weight) will not do better than from 8 miles to 15 miles per
gallon, with an average around 10 miles. A 3-ton truck will range from
4 miles to 10 miles, the difference in every case naturally depending
not only upon whether the vehicle is loaded or not, but also upon
differences in the road surface and grades of its routes. The 5-ton
wagon can travel from 3 miles to 5 miles on a gallon of fuel, its average
being about 4^ miles as compared with 6 miles for the 3-ton size.
A 14-ton road train may require as much as two gallons of fuel for
every mile covered, but will doubtless not be found to gready exceed
a gallon to the mile, except where the going is particularly bad.
Lubricating Oil. The consumption of lubricating oil ranges
between even wider limits than that of fuel, as will be apparent from
the fact that in a commercial vehicle trial in which a large number of
representative foreign vehicles competed, the ratio between the most
economical and the most wasteful was fully five to one. In other
words, some cars consumed five times as much lubricating oil per
mile as others in the same class. But then certain of the European
cars have proved to be highly economical in the use of lubricant and
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 179
it is doubtful if there would be as wide a range between the same
number of American commercial cars, as few of them have approached
the degree of economy achieved in this respect by the French designer.
Experience has shown that the minimum consumption of oil, which
should be of the very best quality for the purpose, is about one gal-
lon for every 14 to 15 gallons of fuel used by the vehicle, while the
maximum is, approximately, one gallon for every six gallons of gaso-
line. Where much hill-climbing is the rule more oil would necessarily
be used, owing to the motor running for longer periods on the lower
gears and under correspondingly heavier loads. These figures are
based upon ordinarily competent management of the machine, and
while an expert driver, thoroughly conversant with his machine,
and supplemented by painstaking garage attendance, might do
somewhat better, incompetence in either of these departments can
swell these figures so tremendously that there is no means of estimating
to what proportions they may attain.
Tires. Next to fuel and oil come tires, and in figuring on this
subject an engineer who has had five years' experience in the com-
mercial field in a consulting capacity, gives the following: For a
500-pound wagon, f-cent per mile minimum, 2 J cents maximum,
average 1^ cents; 1,500-pound class, or regular delivery wagon type,
1, minimum, 3 J, maximum, and 2^ cents average per mile; 3,000-pound
class, H, 5, and 3^ cents per mile; 3-ton class, 2, 7, and 4| cents per
mile; 5-ton class, 3, 10, and 6 cents per mile. Against these figures,
may be placed those which the builders of the Manhattan cars give
as the result of five years' experience in the running of a large num-
ber of their own vehicles. Manhattan 2-ton truck, 2 cents per mile,
the figure in each case being the average; 3-ton truck, 2^ cents per
mile; 4-ton truck, 3 cents per mile; and the 5-ton truck, 4 cents per
mile, this last falling between the minimum and the average for this
class in the foregoing figures. Unfortunately no data is available
at the moment on tire costs on the electric vehicles, though it may be
stated definitely that owing to the lower average speeds and the
greater ease with which the load is started by the electric motor, this
type of vehicle shows much greater economy in tires than the gasoline
car, though exactly how much is a question that could only be an-
swered by a direct comparison of the figures.
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180 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
Total Cost of Operation. The cost of operating various sizes
of trucks is given in a different light by the makers of the Hewitt cars.
The figures are based on five years' constant operation, the vehicle
averaging 300 days in service — a task which should not be diflBcult
of accomplishment. On this basis, and figuring an average run of
50 miles per day, the tire figures for a Hewitt 2-ton truck are given
as $L34 per working day, or $.0268 per mile, which will be found to
practically agree with the averages already cited. On the same
basis, the tire cost of the 3-ton truck, averaging 45 miles per day,
300 days in the year, for five years, is $.037, or slightly more than 3^
cents per mile, as compared with the average of 4f cents given in
the first instance. This and other similar discrepancies between
the two may well be accounted for by the long period of operation
upon which the Hewitt averages are based, this naturally being more
conducive to a favorable showing. Under similar conditions and
averaging 40 miles a day, tire costs for a 5-ton truck are $.0583 per
mile — ^practically the same as the 6-cent average for the same type
in the first table. The cost of tire mileage naturally reaches its
maximum on the 10-ton size, the Hewitt figures for their vehicles
of this class being $.111 per mile, or between 11 and 12 cents.
From a basis of a five-year period of operation, it will be of
interest to compare daily total costs of operation in a few instances.
The following figures are given by the makers of the Manhattan
trucks and are baSed on an average run of 50 miles per day. For a
Manhattan 2-ton truck, the total daily operating cost — exclusive
of depreciation, insurance, and similar items as already mentioned —
is $5.88; composed of $1.50 for gasoline, five miles to the gallon at
15 cents a gallon; cylinder oil, one gallon, 38 cents; repairs and re-
newals 50 cents; tire changes, 2 cents per mile, or $1 ; and the driver's
wages, $2.50. Similarly figured, the 3-ton truck will run 50 miles
a day for $6.78, the 4-ton, $7.50, and the 5-ton, $8.00. According
to the makers of the Manhattan trucks, these figures are based upon
several years' experience in the handling of a large number of machines,
and to show how closely they agree with what other makers have
found under similar circumstances, they may well be compared with
those of the Hewitt machines in the same sizes.
Taking the Hewitt figures on a daily basis, that of the 2-ton
truck, based on exactly the same items, is $5.72 as compared with
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$5.88, though labor in the case of the Hewitt is included at $3 per
day, gasoline (15 cents per gallon) at only 90 cents, and lubricating
oil (30 cents per gallon) at only 15 cents, while tire charges are more,
or $1.34. In fact, there is hardly an item in which there is not a
noticeable discrepancy, yet the totals are so close together as to be
almost identical. In the 3-ton size, the charges are $6.22 per day
of 45 miles travel, compared with $6.78 per day of 50 miles travel
for the Manhattan, so that the totals are really equally close in this
case as well. For the 5-ton, the cost is $8.30 for the Hewitt's run
of 40 miles as compared with $8.00 for the Manhattan on the basis of
50 miles per day. That figures such as the above may be misleading
to an intending purchaser will be evident from the further detailed
costs cited by the makers of the Hewitt cars. These include every
possible factor of expense, including depreciation, interest on the
investment at 5 per cent, labor, tires, yearly overhauling, current
repairs, gasoline, oil, total cost of insurance, and cost of storage and
garage attendance.
They go to show that instead of involving a daily total expense
of but $5.72, this should be $9.60 in the case of the 2-ton truck;
$10.38 instead of $6.22 for the 3-ton size; and $12.67, instead of $8.30
for the 5-ton truck.
Mention has been made under Gasoline-Driven Trucks of the
fact that the 10-ton size is about the maximum which it has been
found commercially practicable to build as a single unit, the motor
road train being employed where it is desirable to transport larger
loads than this at one time. The Hewitt 10-ton truck is the only
representative of this class and some figures of its service performance
will be of interest. They refer to the truck. Fig. 75, and are based
on what it did during the last four months of 1909. The daily run
varied from 34 miles to 37 miles, with an average of 35.4. During
13 days in October, one of these huge trucks delivered 1092.39 tons
of coal, the round trip varying from 5.5 miles to 15 miles. The aver-
age tonnage per day was 84.03, or 8.3 loads per day, which were
made on an average gasoline consumption of a little less than 12
gallons, or 2.97 miles per gallon. The maximum cost of operation
per day was $16, including all charges, which gave an average cost
of $.19 per ton of coal for delivery. The weight of the empty car is
13,000 pounds, while the average weight of the load was 20,250
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182 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
pounds, giving a total of 33,250 pounds and making the average
rolling load, full and empty, 23,125 pounds. This gives a ton-mile-
age of 34.43 per gallon of gasoline, which is an excellent showing.
^Tiile no serious attempt has been made to analyze the cost of
operation of the conmiercial vehicle on a general scale, the figures
cited are all given as the result of several years' experience on the part
of those who are in a position to be cited as authorities in the matter,
so that the totab may be taken as a criterion. In other words, the
student who finds himself called upon to analyze the cost of a motor
delivery system and put his finger on the item that is making havoc
with calculations made in advance, may take it for granted that the
facts are fully representative of what may be accomplished by well-
built cars of the heavier types in the hands of competent men — a term
which is not intended to include either a factory expert or a novice.
FUELS
Qasoline. So long as gasoline represents not alone the most
efficient fuel for use in motors of the present type, but likewise the
most convenient, it will doubtless continue to be generally employed
for pleasure-car use, regardless of its increasing cost. This effect-
ively answers the question as to why kerosene is not used for pleasure-
car propulsion. It is quite true that kerosene is cheaper and its value
as a fuel for the internal-combustion motor is slightly greater than
that of gasoline, but to realize its greater value it requires a motor
designed to give a heavier initial compression. Furthermore, it is
not as convenient as gasoline, for preheating is required to start the
motor from cold, because of the higher specific gravity of *kerosene,
which makes it less volatile, causing it to leave unsightly grease
stains on anything with which it comes in contact.
Similar conditions naturally do not obtain in the commercial
field, where the demand is for the most efficient and economical fuel.
In view of the enormous increase in the demand for gasoline,
coupled with the fact that the crude petroleum supply shows a con-
stantly decreasing proportion of the more volatile products — the
new wells of the Southwest are said to yield an oil producing not
more than five per cent of gasoline in the process of fractional distilla-
♦Note — Gasoline ranges from .62 to .67 sp.g. or 95 to 80 degrees Baum6,
while kerosene is approximately .80 to .82 sp.g. or 46 degrees Baum^«
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 183
tion — it is evident that it is only a question of a comparatively few
years when gasoline will have reached a point where its use for com-
mercial service will not be economically practical. By improving
the methods of utilizing the fuel in the internal-combustion motor
it will become possible to use petroleum of lower and lower grades,
the Diesel motor now running directly on crude petroleum with an
efficiency far in advance of the most economical steam plants as well
as of most other forms of internal-combustion engine. But to ac-
complish this an extremely high compression is necessary — ^500
pounds to the square inch — and the weight involved in a construc-
tion required to stand such a pressure naturally makes the use of this
type of motor out of the question on a vehicle. Instead of being
employed in a carbureter in the manner usually followed on the auto-
mobile, air alone is compressed to this high pressure and the fuel is
then injected in the form of a spray directly into the combustion
chamber, at or slightly before the beginning of the power stroke.
The heat generated by the extremely high compression automatically
ignites the charge. While it does not appear probable that the
employment of pressures suflBciently high to accomplish this will
become possible on the commercial vehicle in the near future, the
method of injecting the fuel directly into the cylinder, instead of first
carbureting air as is now done, will doubtless have an important
bearing on the solution of the fuel problem.
Alcohol. Though volumes have been written during the past
few years, on the subject of alcohol as the coming fuel, it is the pre-
vailing impression that despite favorable legislation which has made
the employment of tax-free denatured alcohol possible, production
has not reached a point where its employment on a general scale is
commercially practical and that few attempts have been made to use
it in actual ser\ ice. The fact that gasoline can still be produced at a
price which makes it impossible for alcohol to compete with it, has
tended to delay the distillation of the latter on a large scale for fuel
purposes, besides retarding the manufacture of engines specially
adapted to bum it. When employed in an engine designed to run
on gasoline, alcohol is neither commercially nor practically efficient,
owing to its greater cost and the greater consumption per horse-power,
as well as the lower output of the same size motor, due to the lower
compression. But that it can be made so under proper conditions
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184 COMMERICAL VEHICLES
of operation is shown by the Hewitt trucks, described on Page 115.
The manufacturers of these heavy trucks offer their 5-ton and
10~ton types, equipped with a motor designed to run on alcohol
without any extra charge to the purchaser. In these motors, the
same quantity of alcohol develops a greater percentage of power than
gasoline does in a motor designed for the latter fuel. WTiile the
burning of an alcohol-and-air mi;cture is attended by the generation
of temperatures almost as high as the gasoUne-air mixture creates,
nevertheless, because of a peculiar phenomenon which has not been
satisfactorily explained, a greater proportion of the heat is absorbed
and there is considerably less tendency on the part of the motor to
overheat when running under a heavy load. In other words, less of
the heat that cannot be taken advantage of in the generation of power
has to be absorbed by the water jackets and dissipated by the radi-
ator. This is thought to be due to the fact that alcohol is never
anhydrous. It is readily miscible with water, which is a tremendous
advantage from the point of view of fire risk, and always carries five
to ten per cent of water in solution. Steam is instantaneously gen-
erated by the heat of the explosion from this water in the mixture,
and as it is far cooler at the moment of generation than the walls
of the combustion chamber, it tends to absorb the heat that would
otherwise have to be taken care of by the water jackets.
The makers of the Hewitt trucks state that their vehicles when
equipped with the special alcohol motor and run on that fuel, will
show an increase in mileage of fully 20 per cent over that possible
with the gasoline motor per gallon of fuel. At the present prevailing
prices for denatured alcohol, the cost of running a truck with it is
estimated to be approximately $1.25 more per day than with gasoline.
Furthermore there is, at present, no stability to the alcohol market
and prices for this commodity might unexpectedly rise to a pro-
hibitive figure. This has naturally deterred purchasers from invest-
ing in trucks equipped with alcohol motors, as the latter cannot be
run on gasolme owing to the higher initial compression employed,
which would cause pre-ignition.
Two years ago, the Department of Agriculture undertook an
exhaustive investigation of the subject, and as the result of experi-
ments made here and abroad, came to the following conclusions :
Alcohol contains O.G of the heating value of gasoline, by weight,
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 185
and in the department's experiments a small, single-cylinder engine
— designed to run on gasoline — ^required L8 time^ as much alcohol
as gasoline per horse-power hour. This corresponds very closely
to the relative heating value of the fuels, indicating practically the
same thermal efficiency with the two when vaporization is complete.
By proper manipulation, any engine on the American market
today, designed to run on gasoline or kerosene, can be operated on
alcohol without any structural change whatever. In some cases,
however, carbureters designed for gasoline cannot properly vaporize
all the alcohol supplied, and in such cases the excess of alcohol con-
sumed over gasoline, is greater. But the absolute excess of alcohol
consumed over gasoline will be reduced by such changes in the design
of the engine as tend to increase its thermal efficiency.
By altering the design of the carbureter and increasing the
initial compression materially, any engine built to run on gasoline
will show an increased thermal eflBciency and will then consume less
alcohol per horse-power hour in proportion to this increase. An
engine designed for gasoline or kerosene will, without any material
alterations being necessary to adapt it to alcohol, show slightly more
power (approximately 10 per cent) with alcohol than with the fuels
for which it was designed, but this increase is at the expense of a
greater consumption of fuel. By making alterations designed to
adapt the engine to the new fuel, this excess can be increased to fully
20 per cent. Different designs of gasoline and kerosene engines are
not equally well adapted for burning alcohol, though all will do so
with a fair degree of success.
The storage of alcohol and its use in the motor is attended with
much less danger than that of gasoline, and the exhaust from the
alcohol motor is not as apt to be quite so offensive as that from a
gasoline motor, though an excess of lubricant and imperfect com-
bustion will create an odor when the engine is not properly handled.
This is now an important factor in city traflBc, as pointed out in con-
nection with taxicab operation, and is daily becoming more so as the
number of vehicles increases.
No more skill is required to operate an alcohol motor than one
designed to run on gasoline, and the combustion chamber of the former
does not show the same tendency to soot up, nor does it, with proper
operation, show any effects of corrosion. By reason of greater clean-
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186 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
liness in handling the fuel, increased safety of storage, and less
offensiveness in the exhaust, alcohol engines will sooner or later begin
to displace the gasoline motor, particularly when the production of
alcohol reaches a scale where its use will be on practically the same
economic le\'el. It has been thought that in this field, it would be
impossible to conveniently increase the compression of the motor
because of starting difficulties, but as the compression release employed
for starting on many gasoline motors is equally applicable to the
alcohol motor, this should not prove a deterrent.
In many localities, it is unlikely that alcohol power will be cheaper,
or as cheap as gasoline power for some time to come, but in isolated
districts such as those to which the motor road train is particularly
adaptable, the possibility of distilling the alcohol fuel right on
the ground would be a decided advantage, both practically and
economically. The raw materials ordinarily employed for this pur-
pose are sugar-mill waste (whether cane or beet), cornstalks, any
vegetable refuse or similar materials of a very inexpensive nature,
it having been demonstrated that it is possible to distill aclohol on
a commercial scale from the pine sawdust of the southern lumber
mills.
Producer Qas. So far, only the possibilities of employing a form
of liquid fuel have been considered, owing to its high value for the
purpose per unit of volume, as well as the ease with which it may be
stored and carried on the vehicle. Lack of these advantages would
appear to make the employment of any form of solid fuel out of the
question on an automobile. In fact, coal or coke, as a substitute for
alcohol, gasoline, or similar liquid fuels would hardly appear to
promise much for the commercial vehicle, whether from the stand-
point of economy or convenience. Experience with stationary plants
of all sizes has conclusively demonstrated, however, that these two
fuels when converted into a combustible gas and used in the internal-
combustion engine, are far more economical than any liquid fuel,
no matter how cheap, or than the same weight of fuel burned under
a boiler and converted into power through the medium of the most
advanced type of steam engine.
Hitherto, the size and weight of the necessary apparatus for
converting the solid fuel into the gaseous state has rendered its adapta-
tion to the automobile impractical. Four years ago, however, the
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 187
problem appeared to have been very satisfactorily solved in Great
Britain by the design of a gas-producer which was brought down to
such a degree of compactness as to make the entire plant quite suit-
able for installation in a commercial vehicle of the medium and heavy
types. The modifications necessary to adapt such a plant to the
confined space, as well as the arrangements required to render its
operation easy, will be plain from the description*.
Of course, none of the essentials, such as the fuel hopper, air
blower, water-feed pump, gas cooler, washer, and water tank have
been omitted. The plant is as complete as any used in the largest
stationary installations and the method of operation is the same.
As employed in the service in question, the producer was installed
on a double-decked omnibus equipped with a 40-horse-power, six-
cylinder, vertical, four-cycle motor, identical in all respects with
those employed with gasoline as fuel, except that the carbureter had
been removed and the inlet manifold connected directly with the
gas bag attached to the outlet of the producer. The latter is mounted
directly in front of the dash of the car and is so compact in design
as not to add greatly to its length. The producer conrfsts of a com-
paratively light malleable-iron casting while the supply of fuel b
carried in a sheet-metal tank, or hopper, fitted with large handholes,
or openings for rapid refilling with coal or coke.
The producer is fitted with a special grate bottom, an ashpan,
and cleaning cover, and above the grate on the side of the producer
body, a breach is fitted with a large lid for the purpose of cleaning and
lighting the fire. The top of the producer is open to the fuel hopper,
the fuel feeding automatically from the latter by gravity as fast as it
is consumed. An outlet for the gas in the form of a vertical tube
passes up through the bottom, terminating near the top, while an
open end is provided, surrounding which is a pendant tube of large
diameter, fixed to the top of the inner side of the hopper, this tube
being perforated at its lower end. To maintain the draught of air
necessary, a small centrifugal blower is installed and arranged to
be driven directly from the motor through a ratchet device similar
to that used on the starting handle of a gasoline motor, thus permitting
it to be rotated by hand when the motor is not running. A similar
device is also used on this crank handle, so that when the motor is
running, the handle is idle.
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In this producer, air is conveyed from the blower to the under side
of the grate through light copper tubing, which is used to cut down
weight. A spring-controlled relief valve is employed on this tubing
to keep the air pressure uniform, while the water supply is maintained
by a small, single-acting, ram type of pump, which is also driven by
the motor. The cooler is composed of gilled tubes placed vertically,
to permit any dirt or grit to fall into a well or sump placed at the
lowest part of the apparatus, and in which there is always a supply
of water to catch it. As it is necessary to clean and purify producer
gas before it can be used in a motor, a washer is always employed.
This is formed of a tube fitted with a screen and a set of baffle plates
and is maintained partly full of water at all times. The object of
the latter is to relieve the gas of all fine dust and grit that it carries in
suspension, and to accomplish this the gas is passed directly through
the water. From the washer, it passes to a gas bag, which is fed by
pressure from the producer, through the cooler and washer to the
control valve, this valve being automatically operated by the flexible
cover of the gas bag. As the engine draws in a charge, the bag
naturally contracts, causing the cover to open the control valve and
permitting the entrance of a fresh supply of gas from the producer.
The throttle is operated in the usual manner, an auxiliary air valve
being fitted to enable the driver to vary the strength of the nuxture
in accordance with the demands made upon the motor. It might
appear from the description that such a plant would necessarily be
cumbersome and weighty, but such is not the case. Longitudinally
it occupies less than one-fourth the space required for the six-cylinder
motor, while vertically, it extends at its lower end to about the level
of the axles and at its upper end not quite as high as the dash;
the fact that the weight of the complete producer and its auxiliaries
does not exceed 250 pounds, effectually disposes of the weight question.
Exhaqstive tests were carried out to demonstrate the practical
working of the plant, as well as its cost of operation as compared
with fuels such as gasoline and kerosene. Two producers were built,
one small enough to feed the single-cylinder, 3^horse-power motor
of a small runabout, which serves to show in what a very limited com-
pass the complete apparatus may be accommodated, while the other
was fitted to a car having a four-cylinder, vertical, 30-horse-power
motor. For actual service, a producer was mounted on the 40-horse-
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 189
power, six-cylinder bus mentioned. Coke was used as a fuel and
tests showed that to run the latter vehicle, 19J pounds of fuel and
two gallons of water were necessary per hour. Coke, of the grade
used for this purpose, costs about .3 of a cent per pound placed on
the car, making the cost of running a vehicle with an engine of this
size approximately six cents per hour, as compared with gasoline at
15 cents a gallon and kerosene at 10 cents, the consumption of liquid
fuel on the same car amounting to from two to four gallons per hour.
It will be evident that this results in an unusually favorable showing
for the producer.
The motor can be started within five to ten minutes from aU cold,
the operation merely consisting of getting the fire under way and
supplying air for a few minutes by means of the hand-crank attach-
ment to the blower. After this, the car runs the same as one using
liquid fuel. The driver has little additional work to perform than
where gasoline is employed, as the mixture is fed and controlled auto-
matically by the gas bag and its valve. During the tests in question,
speeds ranging from 3 miles to 40 miles an hour were attained, the
supply of gas being steady and under perfect automatic control at
all times.
While the foregoing will be of considerable interest as showing
the possibilities of solid fuel on the conmaercial vehicle, it is naturally
doubtful if any serious attempt will be made to develop it further while
the possibility exists of obtaining ample supplies of liquid fuel of one
sort or another at a cost so low as to give the commercial motor vehicle
its present inestimable superiority over horse traction. One of the
chief difficulties encountered at first in the use of producer gas in
stationary plants was the amount of fine dust and grit carried into the
cylinders by the gas, despite the washing process, and it is evident
that this condition would be aggravated where space and weight
limitations restrict ^the size and efficiency of the washer, the result
being a scoring out of the cylinder walls and a loss of motor efficiency.
On the whole, it seems quite probable that alcohol will prove the
legitimate successor of gasoline once the point is reached when the
cost of the former places it at an economic advantage.
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190 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
TIRES
It may seem strange at first glance, that the matter of providing
the commercial vehicle with suitable tires should have presented
any problem for the designer to solve. Of all the materials that
might appear to be suitable for the tires of a business wagon, rubber
is the best adapted to the purpose for a number of reasons. This
is frequently but erroneously termed "hard rubber" as the rubber,
although usually solid, is not what is known as hard rubber, the latter
being a substance that has been vulcanized until it has assumed the
closeness of grain of very hard wood. Rubber is preferred for tires,
because of its ability to absorb vibration and because of its excellent
traction, the latter naturally being its chief advantage.
Steel. From this it will be apparent at once why steel tires
have not been employed — first, because they would not provide
sufficient traction, and second because the pounding, which they would
impose on every part of the mechanism would be ruinous. Steel tires
are employed on the Sampson road train, but it will be noted that
the driving wheels are equipped with cleats to give sufficient traction
and the speeds are low. In addition, the mechanisms of both the
tractor and the trailers are of the simplest form, designed to stand
the roughest kind of treatment. In view of the nature of the service
for which a motor road train is intended, and the character of the
country in which it is used, steel tires would doubtless form the only
practical solution of the problem.
Wood. Next to steel, wood appears to have advantages in this
field, which have not yet been fully realized. Its coefficient of fric-
tion with the ordinary road surface is far higher than that of steel
and its traction is accordingly much better. It also acts as a deadener
of vibration to some extent, though not as valuable for this purpose
as rubber. On the score of economy, however, it is vastly superior
to both steel and rubber.
So far as the writer is aware, the only instance in which wood
tires are now employed, is to be found in the Avery tractor, which
is really a 3-ton truck designed to meet practically all the require-
ments of farm use. In the wheels of the Aver}% hard wood plugs
are set on end around the periphery of the wheel, as may be noted
by referring to the illustration of this vehicle, Page 133. The device
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 191
seen outside the wood-tired wheels has been designed especially to
enable the vehicle to travel over soft ground, as in hauling plows,
and while it also comes into action when the car is acting as a tractor
on the road, it is not, strictly speaking, a tire. Wood has also been
experimented with in the shape of blocks set on end and fastened in
the felly of the wheel, but the fact that such a tire has never come into
use would seem to show that is was unable to meet the requirements.
The wood plug tires employed on the. Avery are said by the makers
of that machine, to prove very effective in the service for which they
have been designed.
Rubber. No diflSculty was experienced in the employment of
solid rubber tires on light and medium weight vehicles, and had the
conm[iercial car never outgrown the delivery wagon stage, there would
doubtless never have been any tire problem. As commercial vehicles
increased in capacity, however, the solid rubber tires grew in size to
correspond, and trouble was immediately encountered in the use of
anything larger than a six-inch tire in one piece on a driving wheel.
An eight-inch, one-piece, solid, rubber tire was manufactured for
use on the driving wheels of a heavy truck but proved an utter failure.
This was due to the fact that solid rubber is practically incompressible
— ^next to water, it is probably the least compressible substance known.
Bearing this in mind, the reasons for its failure as a large single
tire will easily be appreciated. Take a 5-ton truck as an example.
Loaded, the total weight on the tires would be at least 16,000 pounds,
depending on the weight of the vehicle itself. As ordinarily designed,
a heavy commercial vehicle carries about three-fifths of the entire
weight on the rear wheels, say 10,000 pounds in this case, which prob-
ably is very close to the reality. Such a truck, equipped with an
8-inch, one-piece, solid-rubber tire would doubtless have in contact
with the road surface at its driving wheels, an area of 8-inch by 2-inch
or a total of about 16 square inches for each wheel. As each dri\ing
wheel is carrying a load of approximately 5,000 pounds, this means
a pressure of nearly 310 pounds to the square inch at the point of
contact.
\Miile rubber is not compressible, it is elastic, which many
erroneously regard as the same thing. Due to this elasticity, the
rubber of the tire in contact with the ground, is forcibly squeezed out.
In other words, it is simply displaced owing to the great pressure.
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192 COMMERCIAL VEfflCLES
But as neither this, nor the remaining rubber in the tire can be com-
pressed to an appreciable degree, it must go somewhere. Its only
escape is from the rim of the wheel altogether and it either disrupts
the tire or pulls it off the rim. No form of mechanical fastening
that can be devised is suflScient to hold a large, one-piece rubber
tire on its wheel, and the idea of employing it in this form has had
to be abandoned. The action of rubber under great pressure
will illustrate the difference between elasticity and compressibility.
For example, the only difference between attempting to compress
rubber and a solid rock would be that the former would yield by dis-
placement, if free to do so, as in the case of a tire, which is only con-
fined laterally, while the latter would remain inert until the pressure
became suflScient to crush it.
This peculiarity of rubber was allowed for in two ways, first,
by splitting the rear tire into two units above a certain size, thus per-
mitting the wave of displaced rubber to bulge laterally to a greater
extent than where it was in one piece; and, second, by sectioning the
tire, or dividing it into blocks of
rubber, instead of a continuous
piece. By allowing just suflB-
• cient space between the blocks
to compensate for the amount
of rubber displaced by the
Fig. 108. Firestone Twin, Solid Tipe. pressure, these tires have
proven very effective in service. A continuous tire of the Firestone
dual or twin type is shown in cross-section in Fig. 108 and the following
weights are given by the manufacturers as representing the extreme
load per wheel that should be carried on solid rubber tires of this type :
For a 2-inch tire, 500 pounds per wheel; 2i-inch, 750 pounds;
S-mch, 950; 3i-inch, 1,375; 4-inch, 1,750; 5-inch, 2,000; 6-inch,
3,000; and 7-inch, 4,000 pounds weight per wheel. In the dual type
two 2i-inch tires have a capacity of 1,900 pounds, exceeding by 400
pounds that of two single tires of the same size. Two 3-inch, will
carry 2,500 pounds; two 3^, 3,500; and two four-inch — or a dual
four-inch as it is known — will bear 5,000 pounds per wheel. Fire-
stone tires of this kind are made with cross-bars of steel vulcanized
right into the rubber near the base of the tire and made an actual
part of it. The tire itself is immovably held in the channel by two
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 193
endless retaining wires which press firmly upon the shoulders formed
by the cross-bars. These dual tires have such an advantage over
the single tire, that the latter is now only employed on the lightest
vehicles.
The second and more successful solution cf the problem where
the very heavy vehicle is concerned, is shown in Fig. 109. This is the
Fig. 109. EeUy-Sprlngfleld Block Tire.
Kelly-Springfield block tire and in the form illustrated shows tires
appropriate for the front and rear wheels of 5-ton to 7-ton trucks.
Each block of rubber is independently fastened by being slipped
through an opening in a steel plate corresponding very closely to its
size. These 'blocks have a spreading base of strongly reinforced
material, so that when the steel rim is bolted in place they are very
firmly held. Four sections of steel rim are employed to each com-
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194 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
plete wheel. The use of a tire composed of separate blocks not only
eliminates the tendency to creep on the rim or junip off altogether —
which marked the single-piece, large-sized tires — ^but it abo reduces
to a large extent, the internal or molecular action of the rubber, which
causes heating and is detrimental to tlie life of the tire. The space
between the blocks not only allows for the expansion or displacement
of the rubber, but also gives greater traction, acting somewhat after
the manner of a series of cleats, but without the disadvantages of the
latter. The block construction also makes the tire much cheaper
to maintain and repair, as where a section of a continuous solid tire
is accidentally cut or badly damaged, it involves an expensiver repair
during which the tire
must be out of service,
while with the block
construction; any one of
the units may be replac-
ed in a few minutes at
comparatively small ex-
pense. The metal frame
and the rubber blocks
are illustrated in Fig. 110.
Fig. no. Metal Tire Frame and Blocks. ^ ^j^^ ^j ^j^jg j^j^j ^f ^^^
average diameter is composed of from thirty to forty blocks, and for
carrying weights in excess of a certain load per wheel, are made in
dual form on the drivers, the blocks, in this case, being placed in stag-
gered relation, as shown by the illustration. Based upon wheels of
not less than 36 inches in diameter, the extreme carrying capacities
of tires of this tj^e are given by the makers as follows: For Scinch
tires, 1,200 pounds; 4-inch, 1,500 pounds; 5-inch, 2,000 pounds^
6-inch, 2,800 pounds; 7-inch, 3,500 pounds; and 8-inch, 4,500
pounds per wheel respectively. Typical equipment for 4-ton and
5-ton trucks would be 4-inch single front and 5-inch dual rear; for
6-ton and 7-ton trucks, 5-inch single front and 6-inch dual rear;
while for 10-ton trucks, 5-inch single front and 7-inch dual rear.
One of the wheels of a 10-ton Hewitt coal truck equipped with tires
of this type is shown in Fig. 111.
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLRS 195
— — ~ — — ^ r
MANAGBMENT
The discussion of the taxicab has revealed the fact that the
success of a commercial vehicle in service depends to no little extent
upon its operation. The designer has made everj' effort to reduce
its mechanism and control to such absolute terms of simplicity that
little or no discretion is left to the driver, but it is naturally out of
the question to eliminate the personal equation entirely. The electric
Pig 111. Wheel of Hewitt 10-Ton Truck with Kelly-Sprtagfleld Dual Block Tire,
vehicle means the closest approach to this ideal and therefore has
an advantage where the grade of labor to be employed is in
question.
Conditions where the gasoline-driven vehicle are concerned,
are quite different, and to this fact has been due, in no small measure,
much of the reluctance displayed by business men who were experi-
enced in other forms of motoring, in adopting the power wagon for
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196 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
their commercial needs. The training of a sufficient number of men
to properly handle gasoline trucks has presented a real problem,
which has l)een rendered far more difficult by the lure of pleasure-car
service at rates of compensation beyond the standards permissible
in the commercial field. Thus, many drivers, once they had mastered
the handling of a truck, immediately deserted this field for the much
higher compensation of a chauffeur's position, and the process of
training had to be repeated, often to the detriment of the vehicle
itself. The labor problem is one, however, that will provide its own
solution in the course of time.
The investment represented by the average commercial vehicle,
whether a delivery wagon or a truck, is so much greater than that
called for by a horse-drawn unit of the same typ^, or even its equiva-
lent in horse-drawn equipment, that radically different methods of
operation are called for if the overhead expense is to be kept down
to a working minimum. In other words it does not pay to permit the
motor vehicle to stand idle at all, if it can be avoided. That this
is possible to a very large extent is manifested by an ingenious arrange-
ment devised by the Wanamaker delivering service in New York.
In common with other establishments of its kind, the Wanamaker
store maintains a delivery service extending over a wide radius in
and around New York. Near-by deliveries are made direct by the
wagons which return to the store for reloading, while outlying dis-
tricts are served by wagons which receive their loads from a distribu-
ting station conveniently located in that district These distributing
stations receive their supplies in large quantities from the store
in motor trucks, such as the 3-ton Packard truck, Fig. 112,
several of these being employed for the purpose. But as a body of
the size shown would take some time to reload or empty of compara-
tively small packages, false bodies, or crates, have been designed to
fit snugly inside the real body of the truck. These false bodies are
taken right into the shipping room and packed, ready to be lifted
into the elevator and rolled directly into the waiting truck, its
return to the store and its departure with a new load thus being a
matter of only a few minutes, so that one truck can serve several
distributing stations at outlying points.
Where but one or two vehicles are to be maintain^, as in the
case of the small establishment, it will doubtless be found not alone
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198 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
most convenient but most economical to rely upon the services of
the public garage for storage, fuel, supplies, and ordinary repairs; it
is also a wise precaution to refer any repairs of moment directly to
the maker of the vehicle. But where the number of vehicles in the
service of a house exceeds five or six, both greater economy and
greater efficiency of the service will result from placing them under
the care of a competent manager in a garage maintained by the estab-
lishment itself. Supplies of fuel and lubricating oil may then be
purchased on more favorable terms and a closer check kept on the
quantity used by the different cars. Closer check can also be kept
of Ihe drivers and their ability to handle the machines.
WTien a comparatively lai^e number of vehicles is to be main-
tained, the economy and efficiency will be increased bylM#1St^pment
of a garage, and a machine shop which is able to take care of the
ordinary repairs and provide ample facilities for giving the machines
the thorough overhauling to which they should be subjected at least
once a year. Motor wagons are so far in advance of horse deliver}^
even where the latter has been brought to the highest degree of effi-
ciency, as to admit of no comparison whatever. But as the cars are
usually purchased by laymen and operated by unskilled labor, many
disappointments result from expecting entirely too much. No matter
how close an approach to mechanical perfection a machine may
represent, it can never be anything but a machine. Those who
condemn the commercial motor vehicle after a short trial wliich, from
tlie user's point of. view, has been marre<l by petty defections of the
mechanism, seldom stop to think of the constant care and inspection
involved in the up-keep of any machinery^
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GERMAN MERCEDES WITH TORPEDO BODY OF ENGLISH WORKMANSHIP; 65 H.P.
The Very Globular Stem is Used for Storage Space.
PLYMOUTH FRICTION-DRIVE, FORTY-HOASE-POWER. TWENTY-PASSENGER BUS
Commercial Motor Car Company, Plymouth, Ind.
THE WINTON ••SIX." FORTY-EIGHT HORSE-POWER. TOURING OAR
This Car is Said to Hold the Worid's Upkeep Record of Seventy-Seven Cents per
Thousand Mlles.n The Motor is Started by Compressed Air.
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
EVOLUTION OF PRESENT TYPES
The evolution of the automobile considered as a mechanism,
•and its development as a vehicle of transportation, have been so
closely related that it would be impossible to separate them. The
early conception of the vehicle was as crude as the early notions of
the mechanism required to propel it. Both in France and Ger-
many — ^where the modem automobile originated — and in this country
the first attempts were "horseless carriages." Like the early rail-
way coaches, they were copied after horse vehicles as closely as pos-
sible. The motor, usually of .one, but sometimes of two cylinders,
was stowed away under the body, and transmitted power to the
rear axle through gears and individual clutches, with usually a
sprocket chain as the final drive. To avoid the ihconvenience of
flexible transmission, the power plant was sometimes mounted on
a rigid under-frame attached directly to the axles, where its unsprung
weight had the natural result of pounding both running gear and
machinery to pieces in short order.
The first impulse toward the now accepted standard of design
came from France. Realizing the inconvenience of attempting to
work on a motor half buried in the body, the French builders
transferred it to the most accessible of all locations — in front of tha
dashboard;. and they located the transmission gear in the next most
accessible place, i, e., under the footboard. They suppprted the
power plant and the body on the same frame and springs, and trans-
mitted power to the rear wheels, first through two sprocket chains,
and later through a jointed shaft and bevel gears enclosed in the
rear axle. From that time dates the recognition of the automo-
bile's distinctive characteristics as a road locomotive rather than a
horseless carriage, and the mechanical appearance, though first
disliked, was soon conceded to be in keeping with the essential
characteristics of the vehicle.
CopuHoM, 39M>, hy Amtriean School of Corrotpondonet,
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
Together with the "motor-front" type of design, the French
introduced the sliding-gear transmission. On account of the higher
degree of skill necessary to operate it, this transmission made slow
headway hi America at first, but its advantages have long since
been recognized as outweighing its drawbacks, except for women
operators and extreme amateurs.
With the front motor and the sliding gearset came the tonneau.
At first the tonneau was entered from the rear,- but improved frame
construction and lengthened wheel base soon made possible the
universal side entrance of today. Recently the tendency to enclose
the passengers has taken another step m the torpedo or gunboat
bodies now coming into vogue.
Side by side with the tonneau or touring car were developed
a class of small, inexpensive runabouts for two passengers. The
first had single-cylinder engines and planetary transmissions with
single-chain drive. These were followed by runabouts which were
miniatures of the larger cars, except that the motors had but two
horizontal opposed cylinders. These, in turn, are being succeeded
by four cylinder runabouts, but the transition process is not yet
complete, and the most recent examples of this class exhibit a wide
diversity in motor and transmission design.
A third class of cars has been developed, combining the limited
passenger capacity of the runabout with the power and speed of the
touring car. These roadsters carry normally two passengers, but
sometimes have supplementary seats for one or two more. Starting
with the same chassis as the touring car, many of them now have a
specially designed chassis considerably lighter than touring-car
construction requires.
For winter use various styles of closed bodies have been fitted
to touring cars, and from the heavy limousmes and landaulets ha^^
been evolved a new type of small, closed car for town use. From
the town car, in turn, the taxicab has developed by simple stand-
ardization of construction and the adoption of extra large tires and
heavy springs.
The automobile was once wholly a fair-weather vehicle. It
is still such where mere pleasure is concerned, but physicians and
other business and professional men now find in it an all-the-year
vehicle whose traveling ability greatly exceeds that of the horse, and
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 3
which can be used in any conditions except deep snow. Side doors or
aprons for the front seats, wind shields for the dashboard, folding
cape cart hoods for the top, and storm curtains and aprons enable
the occupant to drive in any weather without personal discomfort
Easy riding is conferred by long and carefully proportioned springs,
and security on slippery roads by chains readily attached and de-
tached as desired. Tire troubles, once the motorist's bugbear,
are minimized by better construction and by the use of larger sizes
of tires, as well as by the quick detachable and demountable rims
now almost universally used in one form or another.
In its economic aspect the automobile has undergone as great
a change as mechanically. The early cars were short-lived because
their construction was unequal — good at some points, bad at others.
The busy owner of any but the smallest type of car needed a chauffeur
to keep it in order. The small, low-priced runabouts gave good
service according to their day and time, but wore out quite as rap-
idly as the larger cars.
Today any high-grade car, even of high power, requires so
little grooming other than ordinary cleaning that its owner may
dispense with the chauffeur. Roadside repairs are limited to tire
replacements, and such ordinary work as is needed in the garage
can be done by the handy man under the owner's instructions. Once
a year the car needs a good overhauling, but even this costs little
compared with what it used to, as many parts, e, jr., the transmis-
sion gears and bearings, and the engine and clutch bearings, may
last two or three years before renewal is necessary.
As much as this cannot be said of the cheaper cars. The most
striking feature of the automobile situation today is the great in-
crease in the number of cars whose prices range from $500 to $1,000
for runabouts and small roadsters, and from $1,250 to $1,800 for
small touring cars. The runabouts in this class are mostly of 10
horse-power to 15 horse-power, and the touring cars have four-
cylinder motors of from 3J-inch to 4J-inch bore. Many of these
are produced in response to a demand for an automobile at the
lowest possible price and are too cheaply built to last long; others,
while not in the high-grade class, may be called triumphs of monvn
facturing ingenuity when their prices are considered.
These new, low-priced cars are not intended to require the
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
services of ehauflfeurs. It cannot be said that in this particular
they are superior or even equal to the higher-powered, high-grade
cars, but they are certainly superior to the average car of like power
of a few years ago. They are less trappy and require far less watching
and tinkering. Most of their lubrication is automatic; the ignition
and carburetion seldom give trouble; the working parts are eflS-
ciently protected against dust and mud; and all parts from the ra-
diator to the brakes are better proportioned, less liable to break or
come loose, and far more durable than their prototypes. The
average $1,500 car today is as good as the $2,500 car of four or five
years ago, and, if not more durable, it is in many respects more con-
sistent and reliable in performance.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
The easiest automobile to drive, and the simplest mechanically,
is the electric. If its range of action equalled its ease of running,
it would certainly be preferred to every other type of car. In fact,
Fig. 1. Columbus Electric Runabout.
Columbus Buggy Co,, ColunU>ua, Ohio.
however, its sphere is limited chiefly to local uses, where no greater
mileage than 20 to 30 miles per day is ordinarily required. It is
very popular in the city as the ecjuivalent of the horse-dmwn brougham
and park runabout. Physicians find it eminently suitable for mak-
ing local professional calls, and closed electric vehicles are preferred
for shopping, calling, and visits to the theater.
The open types of electric vehicles usually seat two passengers.
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 5
They are made with stanhope, victoria, and piano-box iMHlies, and
contain usually 24 or 26 cells of battery — Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3, and
Fig. 2. Columbus Electric Phaeton.
Fig. 4. It was formerly the practice to attach the motor rigidly to
the rear axle, but in present vehicles it is always hung from the frame,
or else attached rigidly thereto. In the latter case it drives the rear
Fig. 3. Baker Electric Runabout.
Baker Motor Vehicle Co., Clevdandt Ohio.
axle either through a single-reduction gearing and sprocket chain
or through a propeller shaft with universal joints, after the manner
of gasoline vehicles.
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6 TYPES OF AUTO:VIOBTLES
The wheel base of these small cars is from 70 inches to 80 inches.
The wheels are usually 30 inches or 32 inches in diameter, and
the motor is rated at from 3 horse-power to 4 horse-power. The
Fig. 4. Baker Electric Roadster.
controller is usually of the series-parallel type, and gives four to six
forward speeds and one or two reverse speeds. The motor, differ-
ential, and wheel bearings are lubricated by oil wells, and usually
two sets of brakes are furnished. The body has a folding top for
stonny weather.
Ascending the scale of size, a few roadster models of longer
Fig. 5. Waverley Koadsler.
Waverley Co., Indianapolis, Ind.
wheel base and larger battery capacity than the runabouts just
mentioned may be found. According to size, these have from 24
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
Fig. 6. Detroit Electric Coup6.
Anderson Carriage Co.* Detroit, Mich.
cells to 42 cells, and the larger ones bear a close resemblance to
gasoline touring roadsters. Mechanically they are enlarged edi-
tions of the smaller machines, Fig. 5.
The large class of enclosed electric vehicles begins with small
Fig. 7. Babcock Electric Town Car.
Babcock Electric Carriage Co., Buffalo, N. Y.
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8 TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
^
coup& with 24 cells to 30 cells, and extends upward to heavy town
cars with 42-cell batteries. The small cars, Fig. 6, seat two passen-
gers and have inside control. Larger ones of brougham type seat
three, four, or five persons, and, like the coup^,. have inside control
so that the owner may do his own driving, Fig. 7. The large
town cars are similar to the limousines and landaulets in the gaso-
line field, and have the driver's seat in front of the closed portion of
the body.
STEAM CARS
Stanley. Of steam automobiles, there are at present only
three active manufacturers in the country. Of these, the Stanley
Motor Carriage Company builds light runabouts and one larger
car which may be called a touring car, though not intended for
heavy touring, Fig. 8 and Fig. 9. The boiler is located ahead of the
FiK. 8. Stanley Steamer Runal3out.
Stanley Motor Carriage Co., Newton^ Mans.
dashboard, and the engine is supported somewhat like the motor
of an electric vehicle, with the crank shaft geared to the rear axle,
and the forward or cylinder end of the motor spring-supported from
the body of the car. This relieves the axle and rear tires of a con-
siderable portion of the dead weight of the engine.
Lane. The Lane cars. Fig. 10, are of the heavy type for four
or five passengers. The boiler is in front, and the engine behind
it under the footboard, with sprocket-chain drive to the rear
axle.
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T\TES OF AUTOMOBILES
Fig. 9. Stanley Touring Steamer.
Pig. 10. Lane Touring Steamer.
Lane Motor Vehicle Co., Poughkeepaie, N. Y.
Fig. 11. White Steamer.
WhUe Co., Cleveland, Ohio,
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10 TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
White. The well-known White steam cars are made in two
chassis models of 20 horse-power and 40 horse-power respectively,
Fig. 11 and Fig. 12. The flash generator is under the front seat,
and the engine is under the hood in front. The smaller car is made
Fig. 12. White Touriiig Steam3r.
in touring, runabout, and limousine bodies. The wheels are 32
inches in diameter with 4-inch tires, and the wheel base is 110 inches.
The larger car is made in touring, roadster, and toy tonneau bodies,
also with seven passenger limousine and Pullman bodies. It is a
large and heavy car of 122-inch wheel base with 36-inch wheels.
GASOLINE CARS
MEDIUM-PRICBD CARS
To understand clearly the present classification of gasoline
automobile types, let us begin with what may be called the conven-
Fig. 13. Puiiman Touring Car.
York Motor Car Co., York, Pa.
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 11
tional or standard type of touring car of medium power and price,
Fig. 13 and Fig. 14. The cheaper and smaller types of cars' are,
with some few exceptions, developed from the standard type by
reduction of size and simplification of parts. On the other hand,
the cars of higher power and price show greater refinement and
attention to detail. By bearing in mind precisely what the standard
Fig. \A. Hajmes Touring Car.
Haynea Automobite Co., Kokomo, Jnd.
type is and what it will do, the beginner may estimate with reasonable
accuracy what he may expect for his money in purchasing a cheaper
or more expensive car.
The standard type of medium-power car will have substantially
the following specifications:
Motor, 4 cylinders cast in pairs. Bore, 4^ inches. Stroke, 4} inches.
Rated horse-power, 3D. Crank case, aluminum, supported from upper half;
lower half of crank case forms a removable oil pan. Valves located on opposite
sides of the cylinders.
Ignition by magneto, either of high-tension type or low-tension with
step-up coil.
Cooling by water circulation with centrifugal pump.
Clutch, conical, leather-faced (or may be disk type, either metal to metal
running in oil, or dry plates faced with woven asbestos).
TransmiBtion, sliding-gear type, 3 forward speeds and reverse, with
selective lever. Gear box located just behind clutch. Flexible joint between
clutch and gears.
Final Drive through jointed propeller shaft and bevel gears. Rear
axle floating or semi-floating type.
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Running Gear, wheel base 108 inches for tonneau, 102 inches for road-
ster; wheels 34-inch diameter with 4-inch tires.
Springs, front, semi-elliptic; rear, three-quarter elliptic.
Brakei, emergency brakes acting on rear wheels ; foot brakes acting either
on rear wheels or on drum behind gear box.
Body, five-passenger tonneau, or roadster (three or four passengers).
Other types: close coupled tonneau (four passengers), and landaulet or
limousine geared low for town use.
Price, from $1,500 to $2,000 without wind shield. Magneto possibly
an extra, but probably regular equipment. Weight of car 2,000 to 2,500
pounds without tools, water, or gasoline.
A car conforming to the above specifications cannot at this
present writing (January, 1910) be thoroughly well built for much
less than $2,000.
LOW-PRICBD CARS
Let us now inquire by what means serviceable 30-horse-power
cars may be built at prices ranging from $1,500 to $1,250. In order
to reduce the cost of the motor which is the most expensive single
part of the car, the bore is reduced to 4 inches, with probably 4-inch
Fig. 15. Franklin Touring Car.
H. H. Franklin Mfg. Co., Syractue, N. Y.
or 4^inch stroke. In the car above described, the valves are located
on opposite sides to gain flexibility at low speeds, since the spark
plug is surrounded by fresh gas even when running closely throttled.
The cheaper car has one or both of the valves opening directly into
the cylinder head. This gives higher maximum power, but at some
sacrifice of flexibility and quiet running. In many cases, however,
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 13
the valves are located together on one side, right or left, according
to convenience. This eliminates one of the crank shafts, but requires
Fig. 16. CadUlac Touring Car.
Cadillac Motor Car Co,, Detroit, Mich.
the same bore as when the valves are opposite, or else higher speed
with the smaller bore.
The cylinders, instead of being cast in pairs, may be cast en
bloc, i, e., all four in one casting.
The crank case may be of cast iron instead of aluminum, espe-
cially if the car is to sell below $1,500. In some cases the upper half
is cast in one piece with all four cylinders, thus effecting a great saving
of machine work with but a moderate increase in weight.
Fig. 17. Stoddard-Dayton Touring Car.
Dayton Motor Car Co,, Cleveland, Ohio,
The ignition is probably by magneto, but a cheaper and there-
fore less reliable magneto is used. The radiator is cheaper and is
likely to need replacement sooner.
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The clutch is probably of the cone type without cork inserts.
The transmission is similar to the one above mentioned, but
of cheaper materials. The bearings, instead of being high-grade
Fig. 18. Maxwell Touring Car — Detachable Tonneau.
MaxvoeU' Briscoe Motor Co., Tarrutovmt N. Y.
roller or annular ball bearings, are likewise cheaper, and may be
plain bushed. The rear axle is more cheaply constructed and the
differential may be accessible only by disconnecting the axle from
the wheels and taking it all apart. The above remarks regarding
the transmission bearings apply to the rear axle also.
The running gear will be about the same as above, but with
possibly shorter springs and slightly smaller wheels. The axle
Pig. 19. Reo 35-H. P. Touring Car.
Reo Motor Car Co., Lansing, Mich.
may not be provided with a torsion frame, or if one is used it may
not be hung to the best advantage. Throughout the car, money will
be saved on materials, construction, and fittings in proportion to the
lower price of the car.
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TYPES OF \UTOMOBILES 15
Such cars as these are worth their price to one who does not
purchase them with- the idea that they will last as long or be as free
from trouble as the higher-priced cars. In a sense, they are good
cars for the beginner to "break in" on, since whatever damage they
may suffer from abuse is less expensive than it would be if the car
cost twice as much.
Some of the representative cars coming under thb classification
are shown in Figs. 15 to 19 inclusive.
Small High-Qrade Care. By reducing dimensions without re-
ducing price, the quality of the product can be improv^. There are
a few cars of small power and high grade, having motors of
about 3J-inch to 3|-inch bore, whose construction is in every way
up to the standard of the larger ones. These small machines coot
about $1,509. and if the purchaser desired reliability and consistent
Fi?. 20. Ford Touring Car.
Ford Motor Co., Detroit, Mich.
performance rather than speed they are very satisfactory. They
are easily handled by ladies, and are especially suited for town
cars and for local suburban use. These cars, like the low-priced
class just mentioned, are furnished with roadster and small tonneau
bodies, and occasionally with closed bodies also. They have three-
speed transmission and in mechanism, generally, are reduced dupli-
cates of the larger cars.
Cars for $130 or Less, (Figs. 20 to 26 inclusive.) When a
selling price is $1,200 and under, it is no longer possible, at this date,
to furnish a four-cylinder car with three-speed transmission. The
motor also must be reduced; and accordingly motors are found of
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18 TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
3J-inch and 3i-inch bore, with usually 4Hnch or 4-inch stroke.
The cylinders are cast in one unit and sometimes integral with the
Fig. 21. Hudson Koadster.
Hudson Motor Car Co,, Detroit, Mich.
upper half of the crank case. The valves, as a rule, are together on
one side, to save the expense and complication of overhead valves
in a small engine. Transmission is of the planetary tvpe giving
two speeds ahead and one reverse, by clutch and friction bands.
The fan is omitted from behind the radiator, the flywheel spokes
l)eing formed to act as fan blades, and gravity (thermo-siphon)
Fig. 22. Paige-Detroit Koadster.
Paige-Detroit Motor Car Co., Detroit, Mich.
circulation is used or else a small gear pump is built into the engine.
The springs, instead of being semi-elliptic, are in some cases front
and rear cross springs, the axles being held parallel by radius rods.
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 17
Cars of the type just described have achieved a great popularity
with owners who expect to use a car only one or two seasons and thai
Fig. 28. Maxwell Runabout.
MaxweU-Bri8eo€ Motor Co., Tarrytown, N. Y.
dispose of it. They are light in build, very simple in mechanism,
and are sold at a low price. Necessarily they do not contain the
materials or workmanship of higher-priced cars, and they are rushed
through the factory at a rate which precludes the possibility of much
Fig. 24. Reo Runabout.
Reo Motor Car Co., Lansing, Mich.
individual attention being bestowed on any given car. The pur-
chaser must expect to watch for minor faults in ignition, carburetion.
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and adjustment generally, and correct them as they appear. Never-
theless in intelligent hands these cars will run as much as 10,000
Fig. 25. Reo 20-H. P. Touring Car.
miles before needing anything of consequence in the way of repairs.
A planetary gear cannot to advantage give more than two speeds
ahead, and it is very ineflBcient m any but the direct drive. This
fact has led to the adoption recently of two-speed sliding gears in a
CDnsiderable number of low-priced runabouts and roadsters selling
for $800 and less. As it takes some skill to shift from one gear to
Fig. 26. DeTamble Runabout.
DeTamble Motor Co,, Anderson, Ind.
another when the difference in ratios is as much as three to one — it
has to be at least that when there are only two changes of speed —
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 19
and as the only advantage of such a gearset over planetary gears is
more efficient performance in low gear, it seems doubtful if the
advantages of these two-speed sliding gearsets compensate for their
disadvantages. It is probable that in another year or two this type
of transmission will entirely disappear, being succeeded by the stand-
ard three-speed type.
In other respects the runabouts and miniature roadsters just
m«itioned are quite attractive little cars. They are "sporty" in
appearance, and have motors and running gear substantially dupli-
cating those of the larger cars. The clutch is usually a leather-faced
cone; drive is by propeller shaft; and other features are in keeping.
Fig. 27. Brush Runabout.
Bru8h Runabout Co., Detroit, Mich.
The wheel base is from 90 inches to 96 inches. Of course the mech-
anism is simplified to the utmost, and the construction is not such
as to guarantee a longer life than about three seasons. As the cars
are very light and are geared somewhat low, nearly all the running
is done in high gear, this makes them easy for the novice, except
for the single difficulty of shifting gears above referred to.
A little lower in the scale of price comes a small class of two-
passenger runabouts whose motors have two horizontally opposed
cylinders located crosswise under the bonnet. Some of these cars
have planetary gears, others have two-speed sliding gears. Their
chief usefulness is perhaps to give the beginner something with which
to practice, but they are also useful for strictly short distance pur-
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20 TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
poses^ as one might use a bicycle or a horse and carriage for going
about town^ or to the railroad station.
Parallel with the class of cars just described, and dating fur-
ther back in the scale of evolution, is an intermediate class of ma-
chines having two-cylinder, horizontal motors located fore and aft
under the body, and developing usually about 15 horse-power.
These cars are a development from the now obsolete small, single-
cylinder runabout with horizontal motor. Like their early proto-
types, they have two speeds, planetary transmission, and single-
Fig. 28. Schacht Buggy Type.
Schachi M/o. Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.
chain final drive. Owing to their mechanical simplicity one can
get perhaps more in the way of power and travel ability for a given
outlay in these cars than in any other type of automobile; but on
account of the limitations of their two-speed transmission they are
popular only with beginners and with women drivers, to whom tlie
management of the planetary transmission is much easier than
that of the sliding gears. They are good cars for local use and for
rough work. They are not fast, and usually are built to sell at a
low price, so that they are practically worn out in about three seasons.
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* The small runabout illustrated in Fig. 27 belongs to no class,
so individual is its design and construction. It has a single-cylinder,
vertical motor in front, planetary transmission, and side-chain final
drive from a cross shaft containing the differential. The motor is
balanced by the unusual device of gearing a revolving counterweight
to the crank shaft. The reciprocating parts are counterweighted
on the cranks, and the revolving counterweight just mentioned
balances the lateral inertia of the crank counterweights. The plane-
tary transmission is enclosed in oil and has disk clutches for the low
Fif(. 29. Duryea Buggyaut.
Charles B. Duryea^ Reading, Pa.
speed and reverse, as well as for the high speed, instead of the usual
contracting bands. Instead of the usual leaf springs, whether half
elliptic or otherwise, this machine has helical springs, and the axle
ends are guided by short radius rods whose hinged ends bear against
friction plates which act as shock absorbers. The chassis fram3
and the axles are of wood. The wheels are small. The who! a
machine is a good example of ingenious manufacturing to sell at a
very low price.
Buggy Type Machines. (Fig. 28 and Fig. 29.) One more
type of low-priced machine remains to be mentioned. That is the
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so-called buggy type. These machines as a class are characterized,
as their name indicates, by relatively high wheels — ^usually 42 inches
diameter, with narrow, solid tires. The motors are as a rule horizontal,
with two opposed cylinders, air- or water-cooled. The transmission
is 'sometimes planetary, sometimes of the individual clutch tj'pe.
The final drive is always by individual belts running over large rims
attached to the spokes of the rear wheels. Sometimes there is not
even a differential, but one belt is allowed to slip when a curve is
negotiated. As these machines are at present in a transitional stage,
nothing very definite can be said about their future. They have a
certain popularity in farming districts, but for the most part appeal
only to the man buying his first car. They are seldom carefully
constructed, and they contain none of the engineering refinements
of the standard types of automobiles.
HIQH-PRICBD CARS
We may now turn to the other end of the scale and examine the
types of cars which grade upward from the typical medium-priced
car with which this section began.
As the scale is ascended, both in engineering quality arid in
horse-power, the tendency is more and more exclusively to use the
Fig. 30. White Gas Touring Car.
White Co., Cleveland, Ohio.
'*T head" motor, and usually the cylinders are cast in pairs. The
crank case is aluminum, and usually a removable oil pan permits
the crank-shaft bearings to be examined. Occasionally, however,
the crank case is barrel shape, with removable heads at the ends and
the intermediate bearings supported in removable pillow blocks
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 23
bolted in place through the bottom of the crank case. Ignition is
by high-tension magneto, either with an entirely separate battery
Pig. 31. Rainier Touring Car.
Rainier Motor Co., New York City.
system sparking a second set of plugs, or with an auxiliary battery
and coil, for starting only, sparking through the magneto distributor
and the same set of plugs. The clutch is usually of the multiple
disk type, either dry or running in oil, though special types of con-
tracting or expanding band clutches are also used. The carbureter
is hot-jacketed and is usually manufactured by the builder of the c.ir.
Fig. 32. Premier Touring Car.
Premier Motor Mfg. Co., Indianapolis, Ind.
The transmission gives either three speeds or four speeds, the latter
being preferred for high powers and sometimes for medium powers
and low powers also. Final drive is in some cases by side chains,
but usually by propeller shaft. The rear springs are three-quarter
elliptic or platform, and the rear axle, if shaft-driven, is of the float-
ing type. The torsion frame and radius rods are in most cases care-
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24 TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
fully worked out, so that the springs have only vertical loads to qany;
the propeller shaft has only its own proper work to do; and the radius
rods, torsion frame, and springs do not conflict with each other in
any way. Side sway is provided for by pivoting the torsion frame
at its front end and also to the rear axle in order to permit side move-
ment, and in a few of the best examples of construction the radius
rods terminate in hardened ball and socket joints adjustable for
wear. Minute attention is paid both to prevention of undue wear
and to provision for easy replacement when wear occurs. The minor
bearings of the steering gear, springs, gear and brake operating
mechanism, etc., are usually hardened and bushed, and are provided
with grease cups ensuring constant lubrication. Similar grease
cups are in many cases found in the medium-priced and cheap cars,
but the hardening and bushing features are apt to be omitted.
Illustrations of these cars are shown in Figs. 30 to 44 inclusive.
Six^ylinder Cars* The six-cylinder car is conceded to be the
high-water mark of excellence in automobile construction. Its ad-
vantages are as follows: .
1. Complete absence of the mechanical vibration due to inertia and
centrifugal force of the moving parts, since these are in perfect balance at all
positions of the crank.
2. Smoother turning effort, due (a) to the individual impulses being
smaller for equal power, (6) to the impulses overlapping.
3. Ability to run very slowly without "killing" the engine, due partly
to the 9verlapping torque, but chiefly to the more'regular and continuous
suction on the carbureter.
4. Ability to accelerate quickly, due to the same causes as 3.
Some advantage accrues to the transmitting mechanism of the
car as a result of the smoother torque of the six as compared with
the four. Although it is perhaps too early to generalize on the sub-
ject, it seems probable that for equal power a six-cylinder car may
be expected to outlast a four-cylinder car. On the other hand, a
six-cylinder engine cannot be made very compact without some
sacrifice of wearing qualities in the engine, owing to the reduced length
of the crank-shaft bearings. The necessarily long wheel base re-
quires heavier frame construction, and also increases somewhat the
possibility of the flywheel rim striking obstructions in the road if
the flywheel occupies its usual position at the rear end of the crank
shaft. In a few makes of cars, that possibility is averted by locating
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 25
the flywheel at the front end, though this certainly necessitates a
stronger crank shaft.
The six-cylinder car made its way first in the higher powers,
Fig. 33. Packard Limousfne.
Packard Motor Car Co,, Detroit, Mich.
for the obvious reason that the vibration of a four-cylinder engine
becomes objectionable when the bore is mcreased beyond five mches.
The attractive riding qualities of the six-cylinder have, however, led
to its adoption in engines of as small as 3 J-inch cylinder bore, and
Fig. 34. Winton "Six" Touring Oar.
Winton Motor Carriage Co., Clev^nd, Ohio.
developing about 25 horse-power. It is yet too soon to say to what
extent the six-cylinder will be adopted in other than the highest-grade
cars, but among the latter it seems to have a sure place.
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Bodies. High-Powered Type. In the choice of bodies the
purchaser of a high-grade ear has greater latitude of choice than is
Fig. 35. Knox Touring Car.
Knox Automobile Co., Springfield. Maaa.
open v^en his price limit is below $2,000. Up to 30 horse-power
or 40 horse-power, the standard tonneau car seats five passengers,
with increasing foot room as the wheel base lengthens. In the higher
powers the tonneau alone frequently seats five, the last two usually
on folding seats, but sometimes on stationary swivel seats between
which access is had to the rear seat. For owners who do not seek
large carrying capacity, there are "close-coupled" and "pony
>>
Fig. 36. Palmer & Singer Toy Tonneau.
Palmer A Singer, New York City.
tonneaus. Fig. 35 and Fig. 36, seating in the rear two passengers only,
and having the tonneau seat ahead of the rear axle, thereby sodding
to the passengers' comfort and also permitting higher speeds. For
the motorist who Usually takes but one passenger, but on occasion
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 27
may take one or two others, there are roadster bodies with single
and double rumble seats. For strictly touring purposes the rear
Fig. 37. American Traveler.
American Motor Car Co., Indianapolin, Ind.
seats give place to the large permanent box or hamper wherein cloth-
ing and other touring supplies may be packed. This hamper is
separate from the tool boxes.
In closed cars there is the limousine seating from three to five
passengers inside and one beside the driver in front. The limousine,
Fig. 33 and Fig. 41, b used chiefly for town and suburban work and
as a depot conveyance in bad weather. The landaul^t, Fig. 38,
Fig. 38. Hotctilciss Landaulet.
HUchkiss Import Co., New York City.
which has the rear seat covered by a leather or pantasote top which
can be folded back, is preferred for summer use where enclosure is
desired only in case of rain.
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In addition to these there are numerous special styles of body,
built usually to order, such as the Berline, an enlarged limousine.
Torpedo Type. Figs. 43 and 44. An innovation of the last
Fig. 39. Oldsmobile Touring Car.
OUU Motor Worka, Lannng, Mich.
two seasons is the torpedo or gimboat style of body, distinguished,
first, by having -the front or driver's seat enclosed in exactly the same
manner as the tonneau, but with the door on the left side only; and,
second, by the severe straight line effect of the body design, which is
suggestive of the sides of a racing motor boat. Not infrequently
a rounded tool hamper finishes oflf the rear of the tonneau, and by
giving the displaced air a chance to come in smoothly it partially
prevents the intense suction which raises so much dust.
Fig. 40. Pierce- Arrow Touring Car.
Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Co., Buffalo, N. Y.
The advantage of the torpedo style of body is that it helps to
keep the driver warm. It is nearly impossible and certainly danger-
ous for the driver to put a robe about his legs, and his only recourse
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TYPES OP AUTOMOBILES 29
18 to wear fur or leather "overpants^' and wool-lined overshoes.
With a wind shield and wth the sides of the seat closed in, these un-
comfortable protectors become necessary only in severe weather.
Fig. 41. Reaault LlmouBiiie.
lUnavU Friret SeUing Branch, New York City,
It is apparent that these features of the torpedo style of body
are especially convenient in taking long runs, and it therefore follows
that this type of body may be considered a step forward in the evolu-
. tion of the touring car.
The good features of the torpedo type of body, i e., the pro-
Pte. 42. Flat Touring Car.
Fiai AutomobiU Co., New York City.
tection against wind and dust and the greater facility for keeping
warm in cold weather, are shared by the high-power touring roadster
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when the same lines of design are followed. Thb season several
makers have offered special roadster bodies of the torpedo form,
usually with the rear tool box or hamper tapered or rounded in order
Fig. 43. Knox Gunboat.
Knox Automobile Company, SpringfUid, Mass.
to give the wind an easy chance to close in. It may be expected
because of the novelty of the style, as well as its inherent advantages,
on the road, that the popularity of this type of body will greatly
increase.
A. new feature which is on the increase is the use of large wheels
for high-power touring cars and roadsters. Two makes of cars
are now fitted with 40-inch or 42-inch wheels, and others will doubt-'
Fig. 44. Isotta Gunboat.
IsoUa Import Co,, New York City,
less follow. Where such high wheels are used the most appropnate
design is found in the underslung type of frame, which brings the
center of gravity as low as it should be, despite the large wheel
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 31
diameter. This type of frame is hung underneath the axles by means
of long shackles connecting it to the springs.
TYPES OP TOWN CARS
Town cars fom a class by therasslves whose exact status has
not been defined in either an engineering or utilitarian sense. The
present practice is to use an engine of about 20 horse-power with
three speeds, sometimes four, and very low gear to provide quick
acceleration — an important feature in city driving. The driver's
seat is in front of the clased portion of the body, which holds from
two to five passengers.
F\if. 45. Atlas Taxlcab.
AtliU Motor Car Company ^ Springfield, Mass.
There [a a decided tendency to use left-hand control in town cars,
even when the touring models of the sam:^ mikers have right-hand
control. The reasons are that it is easy for the driver to get in and
out when the car is driven up with its right side to the curb, and that
in passing contrary-bound traffic the driver can see just how much
room he has. The left-hand seat is also a convenience when one
wishes to turn to the left of a cross street, as the driver can readily
look back and see if another vehicle is about to overtake and pass him.
Aside from these small cars there are more or less numerous town
cars of higher power, but at present most of these are specially con-
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Pig. 46. Thomas Town Oar.
E, R, Thomas Motor Co,, Buffalo, N, Y,
stnicted as regards body to meet the views of their owners. • Town
cars, as a rule, have short wheel base and fairly large tire sizes.
Fig. 47. Sultan Taxlcab.
SuUan Motor Co., i^i pring field. Mast.
The diflferent models of town cars which are given in Figs. 45
to 47 inclusive, represent as closely as possible the tendency of
design in this type.
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SPECIAL TYPES
Parallel with the typical ears above discussed there are two or
three special types, mechanically speaking. Chief of these are the
Fig. 48. Lancia Inside-Drive Ooupd.
Hoi-Tan Co., New York City,
cars with air-cooled engines, and those with two-cycle engines. In
body design, method of control, and intended service, these are not
particularly different from the conventional cars with water-cooled.
Fig. 49. De Launay Belleville Town Gar.
Brewster <fc Co., New York City.
four-cycle engines. A third class of cars comprises a small number
of makes with friction-disk transmission.
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With the waning of the speed craze there has arisen in France
a numerous class of small family cars which are practically miniatures
of the large touring cars^ but with engines of. sometimes as little as
10 horse-power. Fig. 48, Fig. 49, and Fig. 50. These cars have
three- or four-speed transmissions, roomy and comfortable bodies,
and excellent mechanical construction throughout. The engine
usually has four cylinders of small bore, but long stroke, so that
it develops more power than its piston diameter would lead one
to think. These small cars would be quite impracticable but for
very reliable ignition and carburetion and excellent mechanical con-
struction throughout, since it is evident that the slightest misfiring,
leakage, or other loss of power in the engine would cripple the car.
Fig. 50. Isotta Voiturette.
laoUa Import Co., New York City.
With the increasing cost of fuel and the growing tendency to regard
the automobile as a utility vehicle it is probable that similar types
of cars will become highly popular in this country.
SELECTING A CAR
The first step toward the selection of a car is the choice of motive
power. If one wishes a car for less than $1,500, the choice must
necessarily fall either on a gasoline car or on a steam car with fire-
tube boiler, since the prices of electric vehicles and flash generator
steam cars range above that figure. There are so many cars of
diflferent types at a price very close to this figure, however, that the
matter of selection will ^be simplified if the question of price is
eliminated till after the motive power has been considered.
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CHOICE OP MOTIVB POWER
Electric* The advantages and limitations of electric vehicles,
are well understood. Any woman, or even a child, can run them.
They are not fast enough to be dangerous and they are very easy
and simple to control. Their handicaps, other than of the price, are
two, viz, the delicacy of the batteries whjch require an expert for
their proper care, and the limited mileage possible on a single charge.
The latter feature practically limits them to town use, and the former
tends to lead the owner of an electric vehicle to keep it in a public
garage where the business is sufficient to warrant the employment
of a skilled attendant. The alternative is for the owner to become
his own expert. If he has the time to devote to this, he will save
considerable expense, as the rates for charging at garages are neces-
sarily somewhat high because of the skilled character of the attendance
required. In a word, the private owner of an electric vehicle, if he
can store it on his own premises, need assume only the interest and
depreciation on his private garage plus the cost of the charging outfit,
plus the regular rates for current.
If the electric has been chosen, the task of selection need not.
detain us long. After the body style and carrying capacity have
been settled, the chief remaining question is the battery. The choice
here lies between the several standard makes of pasted plates and
the Edison nickel-iron battery. The Edison battery will endure
much rough usage, and on this account is preferred for certain classes
of commercial work. Its efficiency, however, is very low; that is to
say, for each unit of current spent in charging only half or a third
of that unit of current is returned on discharge. Again, the efficiency
is reported to vary considerably with temperature, being highest in
summer and diminishing greatly in freezing weather. So far as
pleasure vehicles are concerned, the preference thus far is for the
standard types of lead cells.
As between one and another lead battery, the choice is mainly
one of mechanical construction. A good vehicle battery must have
its plates flexibly supported, with their bottom edges thres-cjuarters
of an inch above the bottom of the jar. This is to allow detached
active material to fall clear of the plates instead of bridging between
them and short-circuiting them. The cell must be properly ventilated
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yet sealed against slopping, and the terminals must be protected
against corrosion so far as possible.
Steam. The place of the steam car is not quite so easily settled.
With suitable replenishment of fuel and water its radius of action,
like that of the gasoline car, is unlimited, and the choice between the
two types is one rather of motive power than of simple adaptability
to touring conditions.
To one who plays only the part of a passenger, and even to
the novice receiving his first l^sons in driving, the steam car is likely
to seem far the more attractive of the two. It is quieter and smoother
in action than any but the best six-cylinder gasoline car; its respon-
siveness to the throttle is superior to anything that even the best
gasoline car can show; and the control members are fewer, and, for
successful operation, require no such skill as is demanded in shifting
the gears of a gasoline car. For these reasons the steam car has an
especially large following among owners who employ chaufiFeurs,
if not to drive, at least to keep their cars in working order. Many
persons also, especially those unused to automobiles, object to the
noise and vibration inseparable from most gasoline cars and prefer
the steam cars for that reason. Still others, who wish the maximum
in power, hill-climbing ability, and flexibility for the price, prefer
steam cars for their superiority in these respects. Women frequently
prefer steamers because of the absence of cranking and gear shifting.
Coming to the mechanical features, it is found that in steam cars,
with the possible exception of the automatic devices regulating the
fire and water, the cause of any trouble is not usually in doubt. This
is because the steam power plant is purely a piece of mechanism,
and when a piece of machinery goes wrong it is seldom difficult to
detect the fact by sight or sound. The occasional exceptions to thb
rule furnished by the automatic devices are due to their comparative
delicacy, their small size, and the fact that their working parts are
concealed. The user in this situation must diagnose the trouble by
induction and inference. For example, the weakest point of the old
(not the present) White system was the thermostat, which occasionally
would stick and become "burned out," owing to the fire not shutting
off when it should. As the thermostat was located directly over
the fire this resulted in its becoming crippled and failing thereafter
to control the fire. The symptoms of this trouble, viz, excessive
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superheating of the steam — even to the steam pipe just outside the
generator showing red hot — ^have proved very perplexing to users
unable to trace the relation between cause and effect. Similar malad-
justment of the fire-controlling needle valve of the flow motor in the
present system would result in too much or too little superheat, but
as the flow motor b not exposed to the fire it is not especially sensitive
in that respect. On the other hand, such things as leaky slide valves,
leaky water regulator valves, etc., are readily traced by their results.
Against these advantages must be set the important fact that
as a mechanbm the steam car requires more attention to keep in
order than a well-built gasoline car. It depends on the use of water,
steam, and fuel under pressure; and the numerous joints, packings,
and valves of the water, steam and fuel systems must be kept tight
Since the steam pressure is two to four times that usually maintained
in stationary and marine practice, this requires both excellent con-
struction and more or less frequent inspection. The fuel is under
less pressure, but the consequences of leakage are far more apt to
be semous. Most of the fires that have occurred with steam cars
have been due to the gasoline leaking and thus igniting from the
burner. Of course, when the fuel is kerosene this danger is greatly
reduced, since kerosene is not inflammable in the way that gasoline
is, nor does it evaporate rapidly at ordinary temperatures.
The owner of a steamer must figure on five to ten minutes for
firing up, and on shutting down the fire when the car is left standing.
In severe winter weather it is hardly practicable to use a steam car
at all, and, if used, it must be housed in a warm garage.
Qasoline. Turning now to gasoline vehicles, it is found that
what appears on first sight to be a complicated array of mechanisms,
reduces, on analysis, to considerable simplicity, and that this sim-
plicity is combined with an inherent ruggedness hardly possible to
attain with some elements of the steam car. The modem automobile
motor is extremely durable, and there is nothing inherently delicate
about the clutch, speed changing gears, or final drive. To operate
the speed changing gears, when the latter are of the sliding type,
certainly calls for skill, and this skill can only be obtained by practice.
It b likewise true that a blundering or indifferent driver may never
attain proficiency in this respect, although the gears will stand a
great deal of abuse when carefully made of the right kinds of steel.
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The weak points of the gasoline car are the carbureter and the
ignition system; and these, like the automatic devices of the steam car,
are more or less inherently delicate. It is impossible to make the
carbureter rugged or massive in the same sense that the circulating
pump may be rugged, and the same applies to the magneto or other
Ignition devices. The user must learn, first, to let these mechanisms
alone till he understands their nature, and then to diagnose carbureter
and ignition troubles from their symptoms. It has been said that
when a steam car gets out of order it takes a minute to find the trouble
and an hour to fix it, whereas when the gasoline car gets out of order
it takes an hour to find the trouble and a minute to fix it. There is
much truth in these remarks, since trouble with the steam car, if not
due merely to leaky packing or sticking valves, is generally a matter
of mechanical breakdown, which requires a new part or the aid of a
shop to repair it. Trouble with the gasoline car, on the other hand,
is most apt to be due to some, slight loss of adjustment, sticking, or
the like, in the carbureter or the ignition devices, and this, while
frequently difficult to locate on account of its extremely inconspicuous
character, is readily put right when found. Aside from this, the
gasoline car is not simply a piece of mechanism. Its. owner must
know something of electricity, of chemistry (if he has a battery),
and of the action of gases and vapors. Ten drops of oil or as many
drops of water in the right place will cripple any magneto. A tiny
particle of dirt in the spray orifice of the carbureter will bring the car
to a standstill. There are scores or hundreds of possible troubles
with ignition system and carbureter alone, any of which may happen
some time, though few are likely to happen if a car is properly built.
Most of them are trivial when recognized, but until the owner learns
to trace them from their symptoms he is liable at any time to be stalled
on the road by some mischance utterly insignificant in itself. For-
tunately it is possible to say that skillful design and suitable protection
have minimized these troubles.
CHOICE OP TYPE OF CAR
If the motive power chosen is either electricity or steam the re-
strictions as to type of car which this selection imposes, makes it
unnecessary to discuss the subject further than has been done in the
preceding sections. But this is not true of the gasoline car as the
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range of selection is so broad that the problem presents much greater
difficulty. For many persons the purchase of an automobile is a
serious step, a plunge into unknown financial waters, a gamble with
themselves on the chance of developing the necessary mechanical
aptitude for success. To the man with mechanical taste it may be
said without hestitation that, by choosing the right car and caring
properly for it, he can cover more miles in a year with less outlay of
time and expense than he could with a horse. The same is usually
true of men like physicians, who are accustomed to reasoning out their
problems in an analytical manner. To the man without mechanical
bent, however, or to the one whose occupation has given him no
chance to learn how strong his tastes in that direction may be, the
question is much less simple. Such a man has no business to begin
his experience with anything but a high-grade car of comparatively
small power. A low-grade car would give him too much tinkering
to do, and a high-power car would be the worst kind of a "white
elephant" on his untrained hands.
Owing to the diversity in the types and prices of automobiles
today, there is little difficulty in selecting a car suitable for any sort
of pleasure service, and for a fair range of business uses as well, at
prices ranging from about $500 up.
If a car is to be bought solely for pleasure, or if it must make a
good showing in economy, it is decidedly the best plan to begin one's
motoring experience with a car of not over 4-inch bore (four-cylinder
motors are here referred to). The moderat(*-power car is easier to
drive; easier to learn; less expensive in tires, gasoline, and repairs;
and if, as is quite possible, unskillful handling results in damage, the
bills are far smaller than they would have been with a high-power car.
The potentialities of trouble with the small car are also less, and its
temptations to the owner, bitten with the speed craze, are less hard
to resist.
Moreover, the novice can, if he is so minded, take care person-
ally of a small car as regards the necessary daily oiling, adjusting,
and occasional tinkering and minor repairs; whereas if he began his
experience with a car of high power he would be compelled either to
resort to the costly aid of a chauffeur, or to fall back simply on the
maker's instructions to fill the tanks and radiator, and let the machin-
ery alone. Such instructions suffice for the very best of cars, but
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the latter are a small class, and the novi(^ who attempts to follow
such advice runs the risk of neglecting incipient damage without
realizing the fact, and presently being confronted with a costly
repair bill.
Unless the first purchase is a small new car of high quality, it
is a good plan to restrict the initial outlay to not more than $1,000
or $1,500. For this figure one may get either a new runabout, nec-
essarily not of the highest grade, but still serviceable for a couple of
seasons, or a high-grade car one or two years old. It is difficult to
say which choice is preferable, as the personal equation is a large
factor. If the first car purchased must last several years, it is better
to get a high-grade car at second hand and bring it up to date, since
such a car wears out less rapidly than the cheaper product Pur-
chasing in this way permits the selection of a car which will not be
considered unserviceable when the educational first season is over.
If, however, the owner can afford a taste for something up to date,
it may be better to put the $1,000 into a small car for one year's use,
sell it at the end of the first season for about $600. and purchase then
a better car $2,000 or $2,500 to last several years.
In choosing a new car it is well for the inexperienced buyer to
avoid makes which have not been on the market at least two sea-
sons. Such cars may be good, but in the nature of things their past
record is not sufficient to establish the fact. Occasional exceptions
may be made in the case of cars by well-known designers. The
general subject of second-hand cars will be taken up later. It is
practically impossible for the beginner to judge a second-hand car
with any degree of certainty, and he should either purchase from
a conscientious friend or be guided by an unprejudiced expert.
Estimating the Cost. AVhen expense is a consideration it is well,
before choosing, to estimate the annual expense of ownership and use,
as closely as possible. The first cost of a car is by no means always
an index of the cost of running it. Some of the cheapest cars are
among the most expensive to maintain. This principle applies es-
pecially when purchasing a second-hand car, as the first cost of such
a car may be insignificant compared with the cost of keeping it in
commission. If one cannot afford to purchase a 40-horse-power
car new, it is not likely that he can afford to purchase it, or even
accept it as a gift, when it is four or five years old. This does not
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 41
mean that high-grade cars of that power are useless after four or five
seasons; but their proper purchasers are men who can afford to run
them and who care more for the saving in first price than for the up-to-
date appearance of a new car. There is no reason why a first-class
car should be considered worn out till it has run 100,000 miles, or
three to four times the useful mileage of the $1,000 class of machines.
As for the cheaper class of cars, they are seldom worth buying at any
price when more than three years old.
The principal items in the cost of an automobile are as follows :
1.' First coHt of car and all extras 5. Tires, gasoline, oil, carbide, grease, etc.
2. Interest on same 6. Storage and washing charges
3. Depreciation in belling value 7. Chauffeur's hire, and incidentals
4. Repairs, annual and occasional 8. Clothing and personal expenses en tour
Of the above, some depend on the first cost of the car, some
merely on the lapse of time, some on how much the car is used. Still
others, notably the depreciation in selling value, depend both on the
lapse of time and on the amount of use. Those which depend on use
are to a large extent controllable by the owner himself. Repair and
tire bills, particularly, may be four or five times as high for one man
as for another with identical mileage, the only difference being in
whether the tires receive proper care of abuse.
As so much depends on the price and quality of the car, the
amoimt of use, and the driver, only very general statements can be
made about the probable yearly cost. Some points which may be
set down are as follows:
1. First cost This is covered under "Types of Cars." For
a nmabout it will run from $600 to $1,000. For a 30-horse-power
roadster or tonneau car it will run from $1,250 to $3,000.
2. Interest. If the car is stabled on the premises, interest
should include not only the car, but the garage and the equipment.
Something should also be charged ofiF for depreciation on the latter.
3. Depreciation in selling value. This depends partly on
how long a car is kept before being sold. A high-grade car may not
lose more than fifteen per cent in selling value during the first year,
excluding tires. If the supply is limited and new cars are selling at
a premium, the drop in value at the end of the year may be very small.
On the other hand, cars selling new at the lower end of the price
scale are frequently half or a third worn out at the end of a season's
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42 TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
use, and bring correspondingly low prices. A car of a make which
has made a bad showing for reliability, or whose builders are out of
business may be almost unsalable after a few months' use.
4. Repairs, The annual overhauling, which used to be a
formidable item, is now greatly reduced through the use of anti-
friction bearings, high-grade steels, and good design generally. It
may run from $75 to $300, depending on the quality of the car and
the use it has had. A high-grade car will need practically no shop
work outside of the annual overhauling, but a cheap car is certain to
need more or less tinkering to keep it in shape. As a general state-
ment, a $1,500 car should not average over $150 for the annual over-
haul and a $3,000 car of the same power should keep within $100.
The first year's work on each may cost considerably less. As they
grow older the repair bills are increasingly higher, owing to certain
parts wearing out in three or four years which needed no attention
the first year.
5. Tires and supplies. Tire bills for the 30-horse-power car
will run from 2^ cents to 4 cents per mile, depending on whether the
tires are large enough for their work; whether they are kept properly
inflated; whether cuts in the tread are vulcanized before damage
results to the fabric; and whether or not the owner uses the clutch and
brakes, and goes around comers in such a manner as to throw need-
less strains on the tires. Gasoline consumption will average about
15 miles per gallon, and oil 75 to 100 miles per quart, for the 30-
horse-power car noted. It is safe to estimate the year's use on the
basis of 5,000 miles' running.
6. Storage and washing in urban garages costs from $20 to $35
a month, sometimes more, according to the size of the car. If the
car is stabled on the premises and cleaning is done by a handy man, a
suitable pro rata of the latter's wages should be figured.
7. Chauffeur's wages run from $20 to $30 per week, according
to place and conditions. If the chauflfeur is dishonest and his em-
ployer is **easy," there are scores of ways in which the former can
turn a profit, all of which in the end must come from the owner's
pocket.
8. Clothing hardly comes in the scope of this book, but it is
a more or less important item, and should be taken into account.
Against the expenses of touring may frequently be credited the sum
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which would oth^Fwise be. spent for vacation at the shore or -in ji\i^
mountains. ?
The expenses' above indicated apply to medium-priced cars
except where otherwise stated. A. light runabout will cost consid-
erably less in almost all particulars. For example, the tire bills may
not be over half those of the 30-horse-power touring car; the gasoline
consumption will be correspondingly less; and the depreci^^tion and
repairs will be about in proportion to first cost, provided the mechan-
ical quality. of the car is equally good. If, however,, the small car
is flimsily built it-will wear out in two or three seasons, and. the depre-
ciation and repair bills will be correspondingly high. ' .
To go to the other end of the scale, the expense account of a
high-powered car is found to be fully in proportion to its hoi^-power
and price. The gasoline and tire bills will bear a rough relation to
the weight and power of the car, whether it be mechanically of high
or low grade. The high-grade car, however, will be far more eco-
nomical in repairs, and, in fact, may cost no more in this respect
than the average cars of medium power dealt with above. A cheap
high-power car, pn the contrary, i? a money eater.
The largest item of expense of any car whose speed average on
the road is 25 miles an hour or over is the tires. At high speeds
the tread of the tire is cut by sharp stones, etc., which could not
injure it at lower speeds. At high speeds also one is apt to skid on
turns, and to set the brakes harshly, both of which things are de-
structive to the tires.
Selecting for Specific Purposes. The precbe purpose for which
the car is intended will often modify the choice in some important
details. For example, if the car is to be driven by a lady it is better
to have a planetary gearing, at least until she has thoroughly niastered
that type of car. A battery system for starting is also essential for
a woman driver, so as to avoid the necessity for "spinning" the crank
to get a spark from the magneto. If the car is to have sliding gears,
the number of speeds — two,- three, or four — ^will depend on the power
of the car and the character of the country in which it is to be used.
As has already been stated, the two-speed sliding-gear transmission
is desirable only as an alternative to none at all. If the power be
small, three speeds will be sufficient, but any car of 40 horse-power
or more should have four speeds to be thoroughly satisfactory, and
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many drivers prefer four speeds whether the power be high or low.
A four-speed transmission is especially useful in hilly districts. If
the roads are level and smooth, so that one can stay in high gear
practically all the time, the fact that one has but one instead of two
intermediate speeds it not often noticed.
As r^ards ignition, it is well to remember that, though a high-
grade magneto is the first choice, a cheap magneto is not as satisfac-
tory as a good battery system. The weak point of the battery system
is the vibrator coil; there are one or two systems which eliminate
the vibrator and are exceedingly reliable, though requiring adjust-
ment a little more frequently than magnetos.
Between air-cooled and water-cooled engines, the most important
determining factor is the temperature in which the car is to be used.
In summer weather water cooling has a certain advantage over air
cooling; but no one likes to be bothered with non-freezing mixtures,
and if the car b to be used regularly in severe winter weather it is
much simpler to sidestep the freezing question by having a good air-
cooled car.
Runabouts for Business Purposes. It is easier to select a car
purely for pleasure use than for some special business requirement.
It may, in fact, be said that the automobile for the business and pro-
fessional man has not yet been produced. Physicians whose work
takes them into the country have to purchase pleasure runabouts and
adapt them to their purpose, and the same is more or less true of
real estate agents, contractors, and salesmen, who can cover a certain
limited territory better by automobile than by other means of travel.
Since the business automobile, unlike the pleasure vehicle, must be
used in all weathers, and since a breakdown is practically inadmis-
sible, it cannot be too reliable or too automatic in all matters per-
taining to lubrication, ignition, and carburetion.
The intending purchaser of a business runabout will do well
to hold the following specifications in mind as closely as possible:
Body, runabout or roadster type, with folding top, hooded dash,
storm curtains, and side panels between dash and seat to exclude
wind; motor, 4 cylinders, 3f-inch to 4-inch bore, 4^inch stroke;
ignition, high-tension magneto with battery reserve; carbureter, hot-
water jacketed and fully protected against mud; cooling, by water
south of the latitude of Philadelphia and Indianapolis, by air in the
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northern States if car is to be used all winter; clvich, leather-faced
cone or multiple disk; transmission, three or four speeds and reverse,
direct drive preferably in third speed; wheel base^ 100 to 110 inches;
wheels, 36 inches diameter with SJ-inch or 4-inch quick detachable
tires or demountable rims; final drive, by propeller shaft with two
universal joints; rear axle construction to include torsion frame
separate from propeller shaft, and also radius rods; brakes, two sets,
foot brake on gear shaft or rear wheels, emei^ncy brakes on rear
wheels, both sets to be readily adjustable without tools.
The equipment should include wind shield, large headlights,
also swivel searchlight if much night work is to be done, gas tank or
.automatic generator, and tools for making quick tire changes on
the road, in case those pf the pneumatic type are used. There are
certain cushion tires which offer nearly the equivalent of the pneu-
matic in easy riding and road resistance, and which are not subject to
puncture or blowouts. For doctors, and also for women drivers,
these tires appear to have a special usefulness.
SECOND-HAND CAR
Gasoline. As regards horse-power and body style the same
principles apply in selecting a second-hand car as a new one. One
must, however, guard against the temptation to purchase a car of
higher power than one can afford, simply because the purchase price
is small. The repair and maintenance charges of any second-hand
car will be higher than those of a new car, and one must figure
liberally in this regard to avoid disappointment.
In choosing a second-hand car it is well to check the owner's
or dealer's statement of its age by noting the serial number of the
car and inquiring of the makers or agent to what year it belongs.
Most cars have also certain distinctive marks, such as the shape of
the bonnet, the shape of the hub caps, the details of the ignition
system, etc., which distinguish them from otherwise similar cars
built earlier or later* These afford another check on the age of the car.
A car two years old may have been run 5,000 miles or 20,000
miles, and much depends on this point. The condition of the paint
will often tell how much usage the car has had. Another criterion
is the condition of the steering gear, since wear is usually most
rapid at this point. Grasp one of the front wheels by the spokes and
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work it to right and left, noting how much it deflects before the
steering wheel turns. Push sideways against the top of the wheel,
and note how much wear the steering knuckle pivot shows. Note
whether the steering column oscillates when the steering wheel is
turned to right or left: if it does, the bolts holding the base of the
steering column may be loose. Jack up each wheel in turn, and by
shaking it note whether the bearings are loose. Loose ball bearings
will have to be replaced. Jack up one of the rear wheels, engage
any one of the gears and rock the wheel back and forth to show how
much looseness there is in the transmission line. This looseness will
be distributed between the differential gears, the bevel driving gears,
the cardan joints of the propeller shaft, and the speed-changing gears
themselves. Most of it is likely to be in the differential gears, which
are hard to examine directly. It is usually safe to assume that these
will need replacements anyway. If the cardan joints are loose,
they should also be replaced or rebushed.
Take off the gear case cover and examine the gears with the
aid of an electric light, feeling of tha teeth if necessary. Certain
gears are likely to be much more worn than others, and if the teeth
have lost their rounded profile, or if their sides have been worn away
where they strike each other on shifting, new gears should be sup-
plied.
Run the engine and note its sound. It should be reasonably
quiet when running idle on low throttle, and should not be excessively
noisy when accelerated. It should be free from periodic knocks,
one per revolution or one every other revolution. If a knock is heard,
endeavor to trace it by pressing one end of a stick against the casing
near the suspected part, the other end being held against the chin.
Stopping the engine, shake the valve stems and valve lifters between
thumb and finger to test their looseness. The valve stems will bear
some shaking, but if the valve lifters are loose they will be noisy.
When the car is run for demonstration, listen for nosies, as
these are the truest index to its condition. If the engine knocks
when pulling up hill, either the bearings are loose or there are carbon
deposits on the piston heads. If the engine runs hot on hills, the
radiator or piping may be clogged or the ignition may be irregular.
Note whether the transmission gears are noisy when transmitting
power, also note whether gear shifts are made easily and quietly.
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If high gear engages noisily or with difficulty, it is probably due to
the teeth of the jaw clutch being worn rounded.
Take advantage of the demonstration run to test the engine power
on hills, the flexibility of the engine — i. e., its ability to slow down
in high gear without stopping and pick up again when the throttle
is open — also the holding power of the clutch and brakes. Remem-
ber, however, that the engine power is largely a question of carbureter
and ignition, and if either of these are faulty the engine will not show
its real capabilities. Remember also that worn brakes may be re-
placed, but that, if lack of holding power in the brakes is due to small
size, it cannot'be materially improved.
Much depends on whether the car is offered as being in first-
class condition and ready to run, or whether the purchaser expects
to overhaul it at his own expense. In the former case the car may
properly be debited for any weakness in performance, while. in the
latter case the purchaser must be a good judge of cars to note how far
the seeming defect may be overcome. Many an engine has been re-
juvenated simply by putting on an up-to-date carbureter and ignition
system, or merely by correcting the valve timing.
If the car is supposed to be perfect as it stands, the demonstra-
tion run should not be too short — a twenty to fifty mile run should in
most cases be insisted on. At the end of the run, test the com-
pression by turning the crank slowly with the spark cut off. If the
cylinders do not hold compression well, new piston rings are likely to
be necessary, since it may be assumed that the valves are in good
shape.
In appraising the value of a second-hand car, do not lay too
much stress on what the car was worth when it was new. If it is
several years old, equally good cars are to be had today for half or
two-thirds as much money. Assume, therefore, that the car under
consideration was worth when new as much as similar cars today,
and then scale its price down, according to the wear it has received
and the probable cost of putting it in good condition. Remember
that, even when the engine, transmission, and steering gear have
been thoroughly overhauled, there will be numerous minor bearings
all over the car which in the nature of the case can hardly be replaced
save at prohibitive cost. Such are the joints of the steering mechanism
the gear^shifting mechanism, the brakes, the radius rods, etc. All
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of these, gradually wearing loose, will in time make the car noisy,
even when the power plant is in excellent condition.
When the condition of the car has been ascertained, estimate
as nearly as possible what it will cost to overhaul it. Add the cost
of new tires where needed, and credit the car with the value of extra
equipment, if any. Then compare the total prospective cost of the
car with the total cost of a similar new car fully equipped, and make
suitable allowance for the wear and tear the car has already had.
In this way a fair appraisal of the car's value may be obtained.
Steam. In selecting a second-hand steam car, the first thing to
remembei; is that, from the nature of their mechanism, steam cars
do not usually last as long as gasoline cars of equal mechanical quality.
A high-grade steam car, for example, will be worn out in three or four
years, whereas an equally good gasoline car would last twice as long.
The reason for this is partly that the boiler or generator and the
various auxiliaries, automatics, and fittings under pressure wear out
somewhat rapidly, and partly that the engine, since it develops more
power in smaller compass, necessarily tends to wear itself out more
rapidly.
A steam car requires the same examination of the mechanical
parts for wear that the gasoline car does. For example, the steering
gear, the propeller shaft, or sprockets and sprocket chains, the bear-
ings in the front and rear wheels, the rear axle and the brakes, should
all come in for examination. The propeller-shaft-cardan joints of
a steam car wear out much more rapidly than those of a gasoline
car, due, probably, to the fact that the steamer cannot, like the gaso-
line car, be unclutched momentarily when going over rough spots.
Every road jolt involves a more or less abrupt, momentary change
in the angular velocity of the wheels and transmission shafts. If the
wheels are disconnected from the engine there is only the inertia of
the clutch to be overcome, but with the two rigidly connected the
transmission members must stand the whole jerk, transmitted from
the wheels to the engine.
Have the car fired up in your presence, noting the procedure
and how long it takes. Notice if the burner and pilot flames are hot
and clear blue in color. After the water is worked out of the engine
run the car with the front wheels against a wall, and open the throttle.
If steam escapes from the exhaust it shows that the slide valves or
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 49
piston rings leak. Notice how long it takes the power air pump
to raise pressure. If the tank is full it should take but a few moments ;
if the pressure comes up noticeably slowly, the air check valves prob-
ably leak.
If the country is hilly, test the steaming power on the hills. No-
tice whether the fire comes on and oflf cleanly in response to the
automatic control. If the burner lights back, insist on having the
trouble corrected before you accept the car. A White steamer with
flow motor should require very littie running to enable it to take a hill.
Other types of steam cars must have the throttle opened long enough
before striking the hill to insure the fire being on when the foot of
the hill is reached.
Note how far the engine can be hooked up when running fast.
If the engine pounds with late cut-oflf on low throttle the bearings are
loose, or the valves are improperly adjusted. ' Loose cardan joints in
the propeller shaft will rattle under the same condition, especially
just when the throttle is opened.'
Electric. When selecting an electric vehicle, first investigate
the condition of the mechanical elements, i. e., gears, bearings in
wheels and transmission, steering gear, commutator and brushes.
Examine also the controller to see how far the contact segments are
burned away.
Aside from the above, the main question is the condition of the
battery, arid this can only be fully settled by an expert. The user,
however, can satisfy himself fairly well by having the battery fully
charged^ and then making a test run of the machine, say at twelve
miles speed, over smooth level roads till the charge is exhausted. The
ideal test will be to run the car over average roads such as will be met
in service, but this might involve a troublesome tow at the end of
the test. The alternative is to run it around the block. When the
voltmeter shows that the battery is discharged to 1 . 8 volts per cell,
the mileage should be noted. Before and after the nm the voltage
of the individual cells should be tested. If any cells are found
defective it is best to allow for the cost of new cells.
It will be good policy to remember that any lead storage battery
is only good for a limited number of charges (usually 40 to 50
complete charges and discharges). Furthermore, although the
eflBciency when new is nearly 80 per cent and holds up well for the
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50 TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
first dozen or twenty charges, its capacity thereafter diminishes
almost in proportion to the number of discharges.
KNOW THY MACHINE
New Car. The beginner with a new car is strongly tempted to
plunge at once into hundred-mile rides and week-long tours. This is
a mistake in several ways, chief of which is that it is a strong invita-
tion for trouble in case something goes wrong with the 'car. Until
one understands every detail of the machine, and particulariy the
details of ignition and carburetion, a very trivial mishap may present
formidable perplexities.
The subject of learning to drive is dealt with in another part of
this course, but even the owner who already knows how to drive has
something to learn about the pecularities of any new car that comes
into his hands. Before attempting to drive, one should learn every-
thing possible about the four cardinal points, ignition, carburetion,'
Ivhrication, and the gasoline tank, pipe and shut-off valve.
Learn whether ignition is by magneto or by battery, and if the
former, whether the magneto is of the true high tension type or a low
tension magneto with step-up coil and distributor. A few cars have
make-and-break igniters with low tension magnetos. The action of
these igniters should be thoroughly studied, and one should know
how to remove the igniter plates to clean soot from the inner insula-
tion, and also how to adjust the timing, so that all will fire at the same
crank angle. Learn if there is a battery for starting purposes, and
what is the retarded position of the spark lever. If batteries are
used, test them to see that they are not exhausted when you get
the car.
Examine the carbureter to see how it is primed for starting.
Some carbureters are primed by depressing the float, others by closing
a choke valve at the carbureter intake. If the careburter has a hot-
water jacket, look for the valve which controls the water circulation
through it. If there are adjustable hot- and cold-air intakes, see that
they are adjusted according to the season.
Familiarize yourself thoroughly with the lubrication system
of the engine. If oil is fed by a mechanical oiler through individual
pipes to the bearings or crank case, see that all the pumps of the
mechanical oiler are working, and that none of the oil pipes leak at
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 51
their joints and unions. If oil is circulated from the crank case to
the bearings and back again by a pump located at the base of the
crank case, take out the screen through which the pump draws oil
and see that it is clean. Probably the crank case or oil reservoir has
a test cock at the proper oil level; see that oil of the proper grade is
poured in until it comes out of this cock when the latter is opened.
Some large cars have the main oil tank located back of the engine
under the footboard, and oil is pumped from this to an auxiliary tank,
or to the mechanical oiler. If there is such a tank, locate it and see
that it is' filled.
If the clutch runs in oil, learn from the makers what grade of oil
is used — it may not be the same in summer and winter — and see
that the proper quantity is supplied.
Ascertain what lubricant is proper for the transmission gears.
If the gear shafts run in ball or roller bearings throughout, thin
mineral grease is dangerous for the reason that it cannot be trusted
to work its way through small oil holes. Many gear cases have anti-
friction bearings throughout with the exception of the "pilot" bear-
ing inside the main driving pinion. In this bearing runs the front
end of the squared or feathered shaft, carrying the sliding gears,
and for lack of room it is often plain bushed. With grease lubrica-
tion, such a bearing is liable to cut; heavy "gear case'* oil must there-
fore be used.
Usually the cardan joints of the propeller shaft are encased
and filled with thin grease, and sometimes they have individual
grease cups. Looseness in the cardan joints is at least annoying, and
due attention should be paid to their preservation from wear.
The rear axle casing is usually filled one-third full with gear case
oil, to which in summer a littie grease may be added. Thick grease
is undesirable, as it sometimes fails to work into the bearings of the
differential pinions, and these, therefore, get dry and cut. If too
much oil is put into the axle casing, it will work out to the wheeb and
get on the brake drums.
The numerous grease cups and oil holes scattered about the car
are quite as important as the major lubricating systems. A car
whose engine or transmission is worn out may be overhauled at mod-
erate cost by putting in new bushings and gears, but when worn out
in respect to the minor bearings it is nearly hopeless; for, except in the
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52 TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
highestrpriced cars, these are seldom bushed or otherwise fitted to
take up wear. Therefore the grease cups should be given a turn
each day when starting out, and refilled when necessary, and the
oil-can should be used as indicated.
Ascertain the location and capacity of the gasoline tank, and
note whether the carbuteter is fed by gravity or by air or exhaust
pressure. Learn where the shut-off valve is, between the tank and
the carbureter, and make a practice of closing it after every run. Few
carbureter float-valves are so tight that they permit no leakage what-
ever, and the fact that the carbureter does not leak today is no guar-
antee that it will not leak tomorrow. If pressure feed is used, famil-
iarize yourself with the pressure relief valves between the exhaust
manifold and the tank, and the pressure gauge on the dashboard.
The stramer or separator, which prevents water condensed from the
exhaust gases from getting into the gasoline tank, should also be
noted, and the method of cleaning it understood.
One is under no obligation to assume that a new car fresh from
the factory is likely to go wrong in the first hundred miles. Never-
theless, it frequently happens, especially with the cheaper classes of
cars, that one or another minor detail may not be up to the standard
of the car as a whole. For example, the battery box, if of wood,
may be strong enough to hold dry cells, but too flimsy to hold a heavy
storage battery. The ignition may be hastily installed, the spark and
throttle connections may be a trifle too long or too short to give the
full range of control, and there are numerous other possibilities of
minor trouble which the user may need to find out and correct be-
fore he gets the best service from his car. It is always best for the
first few weeks to keep fairly close to home and help, till one is satis-
fied that these possiblities have been eliminated, and the car as a
whole is fully "tuned up" to its work.
Second-Hand Car. The remarks of the preceding chapter on
getting acquainted with a new car apply with three-fold force to the
used car whose exact condition is not fully known, and which is prob-
ably not accompanied by the maker's book of instructions. In addi-
tion to all the precautions enumerated above, one must be on the alert
for signs of possible defects. Unusual sounds in the engine should
be investigated. They may be due to irregular firing, to looseness
of some bearing, to heating up, or to other causes. The remedy is
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TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 53
not usually difficult to prescribe when the cause is known. The
radiator should be watched for leaks and felt by hand to determine
whether the water is circulating properly. The gasoline pipe and
carbureter should be watched to see that there is no leakage. Occas-
ionally a pipe union or the carbureter itself may leak, but not enough
to cause noticeable dripping. Touching the fingers underneath,
however, will tell the story.
Be sure that the engine gets enough oil. Until you know posi-
tively that the oiling system is working properly, it is better to feed
the engine too much than too little. If a mechanical oilej* with indi-
vidual feeds is used, it is a safe plan to disconnect one oil pipe at a
time, where it goes into the engine, and note by running the engine
whether oil comes through it or not. If the engine smokes, it is a
good sign that it is getting enough oil. Sometimes, however, the oil
eed may be such that one or two cylinders may be starved of oil
while the others get enough or too much. This will usually be shown
by the smoke puffs of the exhaust being intermittent instead of
smoothly continuous. • If the cylinders are separately oiled, the defi-
cient one may be traced by disconnecting the oil pipes at their ends.
If they are oiled by splash the forward or rear part may not get its
share, owing to the oil being low in the forward or rear oil pan.
Some engines have individual pans or troughs, one under each cylin-
der. These should be arranged so that oil entering one will distribute
itself to the others as soon as the proper level is reached. If, how-
ever, there is not enough for all, one or two may be starved. If the
oil is circulated by pump from an underneath reservoir, there is not
much danger of any of the cylinders being starved, as the pump
throws many times the permissible minimum supply. When one
is satisfied that no part of the engine is being deprived of oil,
the feed may be reduced gradually until there is only a slight show
of smoke in the exhaust.
As one does not usually know when buying a second-hand car
what is the state of the oil in the transmission and rear axle, it is
best to clean it out altogether and supply fresh oil. One should by
no means use the car to any extent till satisfied that all the gears
are properly lubricated.
The brakes should be examined for wear, and if taken up nearly
to the limits of their adjustment they thould be refined.
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54 TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES
Aside from the foregoing specific points, watch should be kept
all over the car for things working loose — ^for example, the various
joints, etc., of the steering gear, the bolts holding the base of the
steering column to the frame, the spring clip bolts, the holding-down
bolts of the engine, and the various parts of the propeller shaft,
cardan joints, etc. If cotter pins are missing they should be supplied
at once. If any particular nut or bolt betrays a chronic tendency to
loosen, special means must be found to lock it. It will usually be
found that the trouble lies in the bolt being too small to fill its hole,
or in not being prevented from turning.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
PRACTICAL TEST QUESTIONS.
In the foregoing sections of this Cyclopedia nu-
merous illustrative examples are* worked out in
detail in order to show the application of the
various methods and principles. Accompanying
these are samples for practice which will aid the
reader in fixing the principles in mind.
In the following pages are given a large num-
ber of test questions and problems which afford a
valuable means of testing the reader's knowledge
of the subjects treated. They will be found excel-
lent practice for those preparing for Civil Se^ce
Examinations. In some cases numerical answers
are given as a further aid in this work«
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REVIEW QUESTIOXS
ON THB SOBJBOfr OP
STEAM AUTOMOBILES
PART I
1. Name the principal working parts of a simple double-
acting steam engine.
2. Define radiation, absorption, conduction, and convection.
3. State Boyle's Law.
4. What is absolute zero? What molecular state does it
theoretically represent?
5. Define force, work, and power. What is a horse-powerf
6. Define British thermal unit.
7. Define latent heat. How many British thermal units are
absorbed in boiling away a pound of water at atmospheric pressure?
8. Why is the explosion of a stationary boiler so .destructive?
9. Define superheat. What is its object?
10. Sketch roughly a D slide valve.
11. Define lap and lead. What is the angle of advance?
12. Describe the Stephenson link motion, and give a rough
sketch of the same.
13. Under what circumstances is gasoline vapor explosive?
How may it be ignited?
14. Describe the construction of the Stanley boiler.
15. What is a fusible plug, and what is its purpose?
16. How is the fire regulated in the Stanley and Lane cars?
17. Explain the principle of the thermostatic water-level in-
dicator.
18. How should the throttle of a car with fire-tube boiler be
managed on approaching an up-grade? A down-grade?
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
19. Describe the general process of firing up a car with fire-tube
boiler and getting ready to run. In what particulars is caution
especially necessary?
20. What is the object of blowing down the boiler, and when
should it be done?
21. How is the boiler most easily filled with water for the next
firing up?
22. What is the most frequent cause of low pressure and its
remedy?
23. Describe the arrangement of gasoline pressure tanks in
the Stanley car. How does the driver know when additional air is
required in them?
24. Describe the use of the blow-off valve in firing up the
Stanley car.
25. State two possible causes of the Stanley water pump failing
to work.
26. State two possible causes of poor fire in the Stanley car.
27. When starting from rest, in -a car having a compound
engine, what else must the driver do besides opening the throttle?
28. Name the principal packings which need adjustment, and
state which should be packed tight and which may be slightly loose.
29. Besides the hand by-pass valve, what other device has the
Lane car for controlling the water feed?
30. What must be done to lay up the Lane or Stanley cars in
freezing weather?
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
ON TBB SI7BJ1BOT OF
STEAM AUTOMOBILES
PART II
1. Describe briefly the flash steam generator. State fully the
particulars wherein its action diflFers from that of the fire-tube boiler.
2. In the theoretical (extreme) case what is the reserve capacity
of the flash steam generator?
3. Referring to the \Miite system of 1904 to 1905, state (a)
how the water supply was regulated; (6) how the burner was regulated.
4. State the two chief drawbacks of the \Miite system of that
date.
5. Draw a rough sketch of the flow motor and name the prin-
cipal parts.
G. \Miere is the thermostat located, and what is its action?
7. Describe clearly the action of the flow motor and thermo-
stat (a) when the pumps are nmning fast enough to force the flow
motor piston to the end of its travel; (h) when the pumps (and there-
fore the car) are running slowly.
8. \\Tiat is the emergency gear, and how is it operated?
9. In what respects do the fuel arrangements of the 1909
and 1910 White cars differ?
10. What is the warming-up valve, and what is the course
taken by the fuel after passing through it? Does the warming-up
valve of the 1910 car take gasoline or kerosene? How long should
the warming-up valve be kept open? •
11. WTien empty how is the generator filled with water? How
may it easily be filled on finishing a run?
12. Describe how to light the pilot light.
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STEAM AUTOMOBILES
13. State die several steps necessary to start the car from cold,
raise air pressure, and warm up the engine.
14. Should the burner valve be left open or shut, when the
car stands idle, and why?
15. AVhat determines the shortest practicable cut-off when
running?
16. AVhat parts in the water system require occasional cleaning?
17. \\Tiy and how are the pilot light and vaporizer cleaned?
18. \Mien is the fuel valve of the flow motor'correctly adjusted?
19. What precautions are necessary in dismounting and i^
assembling the water regulator?
20. \^^lat points in the engine lubrication (other than refilling
the oil tank) require occasional attention?
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
ON fTHlB SITBJBOT OF*
COMMERCIAL. VEHICLES
PART I
1. Give the general specifications of two makes of electric
delivery vehicles.
2. Show in what fields the electric vehicle excels and why.
3. What particular advantage has the planetary transmission
over the selective type on the commercial car?
4. Are there any marked changes in the specifications ir.
passing from electric delivery wagons to trucks?
5. AVhat are the standard requirements of taxicab senice?
Give a brief description of one type.
6. What limitations are placed on the load capacity of the
gasoline truck? State why such limitations exist
7. What limits the range of usefulness of the electric deliverj'
wagon?
8. What is meant by had efficiencyt How does this vary with
the size of the vehicle and why?
9. Why did not the ordinary pleasure car adequately fill
the needs of the taxicab?
10. Give general requirements for a commercial car and show
in what particulars the pleasure car falls short.
11. Describe the couple-gear truck and show its advantages.
12. WTiat is the friction drive and what are its advantages?
Can this form be used on very large delivery wagons?
13. What limits, if any, are placed on the size of an electric
tnick?
14. Name the advantages and disadvantages in the use of
Edison storage batteries in comparison with the regulation lead
batter)'.
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
15. Show how the tire question is handled in the taxieab
service.
16. Give advantages and disadvantages of the 2-cycle motor.
17. How can an internal combustion motor be made to give
comparatively high eflBciency on low speed?
18. Give the general specifications for a gasoline truck.
19. Give the general scheme of hydraulic transmission.
20. Give the usual form of springs on the gasoline delivery
wagons and trucks.
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RBVIET\r QUESTIONS
ox fTHB SITBJBOT O V
COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
PART II
1. WTiat form did the early tractors take?
2. Give some of the methods by which the different manu-
facturers produce the amount of traction required to run a gang plow,
for example.
3. What fuel is most common among tractors and why used?
4. Describe in detail the Sampson road train giving particular
attention to the control mechanism.
5. What points are in favor of a road train in the transporta-
tion of a large amount of materials as compared with the individual
trucks?
C. To what extent has the gasoline vehicle been applied to
municipal fire senice? (live some examples and show how this
cHjuipment ha*s been developed.
7. What particular phases of the heavy vehicle problem are
admirably solved by the gasoline-electric type?
8. Give mileage per gallon of fuel for a few of the important
types of commercial vehicles.
9. Give figures to show the total cost per mile of a 5-ton and
a 10-ton truck.
10. Can either gasoline or kerosene be economically used in
an engine without change of the accessories? If not, why not?
11. Discuss the merits of alcohol as a fuel.
12. Give the general details of a producer-gas outfit for an
automobile. What are its advantages? Disadvantages?
13. Compare the merits of rubber, steel, and wood as material
for commercial tires.
14. Describe some of the methods of obtaining sufficient trac-
tion and rigidity with rubber tires on large trucks.
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COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
15. As an expert in commercial vehicle usage, you are re-
quested to specify motor equipment to take the place of 100 one-
horse delivery wagons, and five two-horse trucks. Fifty of these
small delivery wagons receive their supply of packages direct from
headquarters and cover routes averaging 26 miles daily travel. The
five two-horse trucks are employed for transporting full loads to
outlying distributing stations, the most distant of which is 18 miles
from the store. The remaining fifty delivery wagons are attached
to these outlying stations and serve routes averaging 32 miles daily
travel. How many and what type of vehicles would you specify to
displace the horse-drawn equipment?
16. You are called in an advisory capacity to discuss the
question of motor equipment by a large wholesale house. The serv-
ice required is of two distinct classes. First, loads averaging from
two to four tons must be transported from the warehouse to steam-
ship piers and railway depots — average distance 2 J to 3 miles.
Second, loads of four to five tons must be transported from the
factory, eight miles distant, to the warehouse, and loads averaging
three tons must be carried from the warehouse to jobbing customers
situated at distances of from four to ten miles. State the nature of
the equipment you would specify as the best adapted to meet every
one of these conditions.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
OTf THK BUBanOT OF
TrPES OF AUTOMOBILES
1. Discuss briefly the steps in the development of the present
type of pleasure automobile.
2. Contrast the steamer and gasoline car of the same price
and power and show the superior points of each.
3. What are the characteristics of a high-priced touring car?
In what particular is the extra price justified?
4. Is it wiser to buy a second-hand, high-power car or a
new medium-priced car? Justify your answer.
5. What sort of specifications can one expect for $1,500 in a
roadster type?
6. Mention the points to be considered in buying a second-
hand gasoline car.
7. Give the advantages of six cylinders over four.
8. Give the characteristics of the following types: runabout,
roadster, touring car, limousine, landaulet.
9. How do you test the batteries in buying a second-hand
electric?
10. Under what conditions should an electric vehicle be con-
sidered for purchase? Why?
11. Give some of the factors to be considered in estimating the
total cost of an automobile.
12. What changes will be noticed in a roadster for $1,000 as
compared with one for $1,500 to $2,000?
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INDEX
The page numbers of this volume wUl he found at the bottom of the
pages; the numbers <U the top refer only to the section.
Page
Pag*
A
Burners
pilot light
36
Abenaque tractor
249
principles
34
Air-pumps
42
types of
Alcohol, coming fuel for automobiles
303
Lane
35
American
Stanley
35
locomotive truck
226
White
35
traveler
347
trucks
221
Atlas
Cadillac touring car
333
delivery wagon
197
Coldwell tractor
2:8
taxicab
351
Cartercar delivery wagon
182
Autocar delivery wagon
186
Chase delivery wagon
199
Automobiles
Columbia
commercial
119-318
electric phaeton
325
steam
11-117
electric runabout
324
types of
321-374
Commercial vehicles
119-318
Avery tractor
252
electric vehicles
125
gasoline vehicles
159
B
gasoline-electric vehicles
283
Babcock electric town car
327
introduction
119
Baker
classiflcation
124
electric roadster
326
imperfect service
122
electric runabout
325
reliable gasoline cars
123
Black delivery wagon
179
requirements in
commercial
Boiler explosions, cause of
21
field
121
Brennan
standard design
120
street-railway tower wagon
279
operation problems
tractor
255
cost
296
Brush
gasoline
. 298
delivery wagon
176
lubricating oU
298
runabout
339
tires
299
Buggy type machines
341
fuels
302
Burners
alcohol
303
management of
36
gasoline
302
Note.—For page numbers see foot of pages.
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INDEX
Page
Page
Oommercial vehicles
P
operation problems
fuels
Fiat touring car
849
producer gas
306
Fire-tube boUers
37
management
315
auxiliaries and control
39
tires
310
air-pumps
42
rubber
311
by-pass valve
40
steel
310
diaphragm regulator
39
wood
810
steam gauge
40
289
water-level indicator
41
Compound engines
29
water pumps
40
Condensers
32
43
Conduction of heat
14
at end of run
45
Convection of heat
14
firing up
44
Coupie-gear truck
154. 287
fusible plug
46
Cylinder condensation
29
low-pressure causes
46
lubrication
45
D
scale prevention
47
Flash steam generators
69. 292
De Tamble runabout
838
70
Detroit electric coupd
827
White system
72
Diaphragm regulator
39
Force
19
Dock trucks
158
Ford touring car
FrankUn
335
E
taxicab
169
Electric delivery wagon
127
touring car
332
truck
211
brakes
134
control
133
Frayer-Miller truck
216
Friction drive transmission
184
design
128
Fuels
33
motive power
129
motor suspension
131
Fusible plug
46
range of usefulness
137
Q
tires
134
types
134
Gasoline
802
wheels
133
Gasoline cars
330
Electric trucks
140
Gasoline delivery wagons
170
battery specifications
151
package delivery motorcycle
170
heavy types
146
spring design
201
power limits
141
standard requirements
171
service
146
types
transmission
154
Atlas
. 197
Electric vehicles
125. 324
Black
179
advantages
125
Brush
176
delivery wagon
127
Cartercar
182
power efficiency
126
Chase
199
special forms
154
Holsman
177
trucks
140
Randolph & Lambert
183
NoU. — For page numbers $te foot of pages.
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INDEX
Page
Page
Gasoline delivery wagons
Haynes touring car
331
types
Heat and work
special
185
heat transformation
18
Templeton-Du Brie
200
heat transmisston
14
Van Dyke
183
thermodynamics of steam
20
Gasoline-driven traction engines
245
Heat transformation
Abenaque
249
force
19
Avery
252
meriianical equivalent of heat
19
Brennan
255
power
19
OoldweU
258
specific heat
18
Hart-Parr
250
work
19
International
247
Heat transmission
KeUy-Sprlngfleld
258
conduction
14
Gasoline-electric vehicles
283
convection
14
low first speed
284
radiation and absorption
14
transmission
283
Hewitt tnickn 238,
, 278
types
285
High-pressure cylinder
30
Gasoline and kerosene
33
Holsman delivery wagon
17?
Gasoline trucks
204
Hotchkiss landaulet
347
air-cooled motors
205
Hudson roadster
336
load efficiency
210
I
types
American
221
Indicator card
26
American locomotive
226
Indicator diagram of a White com-
Franklin
211
pound engine
31
Frayer-Miller
216
International tractor
247
Hewitt
233
Isotta gunboat
350
Knox
214
J
Manhattan
222
Packard
224
Jones taximeter
160
Rapid
217
K
Reliance
239
Sampson
229
KeUy-Springfield tractor
258
Gasoline vehicles
159
Knox
delivery wagons
170
fire wagon
272
road trains
258
350
taxicabs
159
high-pressure hose wagon
271
traction engines
245
omnibus
281
trucks
204
self-dumping contractor's wagon
276
General Electric Company gas-electric
touring car
846
bus
286
truck
214
General Vehicle Company chassis
148
L
Gibbs road train
268
Grabowsky delivery wagon
190
Lane burner
35
59
H
ahr system
66
Hart-Parr tractor
250
by-pass valve
65
NoU,—For page numbers tes foot of pages.
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INDEX
Page
Lane steam can
fixing up 69
fuel regulator 67
general hints 67
Jubrication 64
packings 04
on the road 62
water pump 67
Lane touring steamer 329
Lansden
delivery wagon 136
scenery wagon 155
Latent heat 20
Locomobile chemical outfit 275
Low-preesiuie cylinder 30
Manhattan
16-pa8senger onmibus 280
sight-seeing wagon 282
trucks 222
Manly hydraulic transmission 241
Maxwell
runabout 337
touring car 334
Mechanical eqidvalent of heat 19
Michigan steam Xruck 289
Oldsmobile touring car 348
Package delivery motorcycle no
Packard
limousine 345
trucks 224
Page-Detroit runabout 336
Palmer & Singer toy tonneau 346
Pierce- Arrow toiuing car 348
PUot light 36
Power 19
Premier touring car 343
Producer gas 306
Pullman touring car 330
Note, — For page numbers see foot of page$.
Page
Radiation and absorption of heat
Rainier touring car
Randolph and Lambert delivery wagon
Rapid
delivery wagon
truck
Reliance truck
Renard road train
Renault limousine
Reo
runabout
touring car
Road trains for heavy haulage
Gibbs
Renard
Sampson
special types
S
Sampson road train
brakes
motor
steering system
Sampson truck
Scale prevention
Serpollet generators
Six-cylinder cars
Slide valve
Specific heat
Stanley burner
Stanley diaphragm regulator
Stanley steam cars
adjusting automatics
adjusting throttle
care of burner
care of engine bearings
cut-off and reverse
cylinder lubrication
filling the boUer
firing up
fusible plug
gasoline pump
general description
general lubrication
glass water-level indicator
14
343
183
193
217
239
260
349
337
334
258
268
260
261
270
261
266
262
264
229
47
70
344
25
18
35
39
47
58
68
67*
56
57
52
50
51
55
66
47
52
62
390
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INDEX
Page
Page
Stanley steam can
Taxicabs
lay up for winter
68
operating costs
operating
69
tires
163
raising gasoline pressure
60
requirements of service
164
water pump
66
taximeters
160
Stanley steamer runabout
828
types
Stanley touring steamer
339
American
166
Steam automobiles 11
-117
foreign
164
characteristic features of ;•
11
Taximeters
160
fire-tube boilers
37
T6mple(on-Du Brie delivery wagon
200
flash steam generators
69
Thermodynamics of steam
20
fuels and burners
33
cause of boiler exploskuis
21
glossary 107
-117
latent heat
20
Lane
69
superheating
24
Stanley
47
Thomas
steam engine principles
26
taxicab
166
White
76
town car
862
Steam cars
828
ThrotUing and reversing
82
Steam commercial vehicles
289
Tires
810
Michigan
289
rubber
811
wmte
291
steel
810
Steam engine, mechanical elements of
12
wood
810
Steam engine principles
25
Types of automobiles
821-874
compound engines
29
electric vehicles
324
condensers
82
Babcock town car
827
cylinder condensation
29
Baker roadster
826
slide valve
26
Baker runabout
826
throttling and reversing
82
Columbus phaeton
826
Steam gauge
40
Columbus runabout
824
Stephenson link motion
82
Detroit coup«
827
Stoddard-Dayton touring car
888
826
Studebaker delivery wagon
184
evolution of present
821
Sultan taxicab
852
gasollnecars
830
Superheating
24
bodies
846
high-priced cars
842
T
low-priced cars
832
Table
medium-priced
880
heat-conducting power of metals
16
selecting a car
864
radiating and reflecting power of
choice of motive power
866
16
electric
866
specific heats of various substances
18
gasoline
867
saturated steam, properties of
22
steam
866
Taxicabs
169
choice of type
868
competent drivers
160
second-hand car
866
development
159
electric
869
operating costs
gasoline
866
repairs
162
368
NoU. — For page numb€r8 tufoct of pages.
891
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Google
INDEX
Page
Page
Types of automobiles
special types
steam cars
Lane
Stanley
White
town cars
Van Dyke delivery wagon
W
Water level indicator
Water pumps and by-pass valve
Waverley
roadster
trucks
White burner
White cars
emergency lever
flow motor system *
fuel connections
generator and burner
glossary
management and operation
brakes
condenser
Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages
White cars
353
management and operation
328
condenser pumps and air
328
pumps
94
828
cut-off pedal
93
330
draining water from car
101
851
engine
93
fllUng fuel tank
89
milng water tank and gener-
ator
90
183
flow motor
96
fuel connections
88
lubrication
99
pilot light
90
41, 52
rear axle
99
40
starting car
91
thermostat and pyrometer
96
326
throttle valve
94
146
vaporizer
96
35
water pumps
94
water regulator
97
88
pimips
84
76
White gas touring car
342
82
White generator
72
81
White steam ambulance
293
107-117
White steam vehicles
291
88
White touring steamer
329
99
Winton touring car
345
99
Work
19
399
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